Rational-emotive theory was developed by Albert Ellis, a clinical psychologist. Underlying the practice of rational-emotive theory and its applications to counseling is a set of theoretical hypotheses about the emotional-behavioural functioning of humans and how it can be changed (Ellis, 1977). At the centre of these hypotheses is the concept that events do not force people to have emotional behavioural reactions. It is rather their interpretation or thoughts about events that precipitate emotion and behaviour. Therefore, the target for change in psychotherapy is those thoughts, attitudes, beliefs and meanings that create emotional-behavioural disturbance. Ellis theorizes that humans have the capacity to interpret reality in a clear, logical and objective fashion, and avoid unnecessary emotional-behavioural upsets, but also says that humans are predisposed to irrational interpretations. They are susceptible to crooked thinking, draw illogical conclusions which are not objective, and are cognitive distortions of reality. An irrational interpretation of reality, such as the foregoing, usually has two or three standard characteristics (Ellis, 1979): (1) it demands something unrealistic of the world, other people, or yourself; (2) it exaggerates the awfulness of something you dislike; (3) it concludes that you cannot tolerate the thing you dislike; and (4) it condemns the world, other people, or yourself. These characteristics are expressed in specific irrational ideas and beliefs, such as the following:
I must be loved or approved by everyone I consider significant.
I must be thoroughly competent and adequate in everything I do. I should not be satisfied unless I am the best.
Some people are inherently and totally bad, wicked and evil. They should be severely blamed and punished.
There is something that is not to my liking, and it's awful! I can't stand it!
My happiness is caused by events and other people. One's fate determines one's happiness. I have little ability to control my sorrow and upsets.
There are dangers and calamities just around the corner, and I must constantly look out for them and stay on guard in case they happen.
There are difficulties and responsibilities that are best avoided, because it would require too much discomfort and effort to deal with them.
It's best to do what others want, let them have their way, so that I can depend and lean on them to help me out.
Because of the earlier influences in my life, I am what I am, and I will always be this way.
I can't change.
There is a proper and perfect solution to all problems, and I must find it in order to be happy and solve my problems.
For example, an irrational interpretation occurs when (a) parents scold a child because of spilt milk; (b) the child concludes ‘I am a bad person’ and consequently (c) feels threatened and hurt and withdraws from the scene.
Case Example
Use the same example of A Phiri after he has related his experiences with Anachisale to the counselor in the second session.
Excerpt from Second Session
Counselor:
A Phiri, it seems as if you and Anachisale had a really good talk about the situation. And she did understand!
A Phiri:
Yes, and we discussed a number of things we could do to improve our financial situation. We ruled out Anachisale going back to work, at least while the children are small. And we ruled out changing jobs. Anachisale wants me to stay with carpentry so long as it is what I want to do.
Counselor:
Talking cleared the air then between the two of you.
A Phiri:
Yes, but no easy solutions turned up. There was only one thing that made sense, but I want to think it over.
Counselor:
What was that?
A Phiri:
Well, Anachisale thought maybe I could get a foreman's job with my father's company, you know, overseeing the inside carpentry work for his projects. It would probably pay better than my present job but … (sigh)
Counselor:
I hear hesitancy in your voice … as if you have reservations?
A Phiri:
Well, Dad is bossy and a perfectionist and I've never been able to please him. We've had conflicts.
Counselor:
And you've really tried to please him?
A Phiri:
All my life!
Counselor:
And when you don't please him, you sometimes feel hurt? Later, maybe angry? (A Phiri nods.) Then a conflict boils up.
A Phiri:
You've got it! Is this common? You sound as though you know about it.
Counselor:
Yes, it's not unusual to have conflicts with a parent. In your case the conflict seems to stop you from considering doing business with your father.
A Phiri:
You know, if I could get along with Dad, it would be a terrific opportunity. And I think he would like to have me as a partner. But getting along with him … and presenting the partnership idea to him … I just don't know.
Counselor:
If you like, we could work out how to improve your interaction. And then you could decide if you want to pursue the idea with your father.
A Phiri:
OK, but I am warning you, I really get mad at him.
Counselor:
Let's start right there. In what kind of situation do you get angry with him?
A Phiri:
When I do something for him, or do something I'm proud of, and he makes a critical comment or doesn't have one good word to say.
Counselor:
And you think he should say thanks or be complimentary.
A Phiri:
Well, at least a word or two!
Counselor:
Why should he give you that word or two?
A Phiri:
Because any father would do that…
Counselor:
… if he truly cared for his son? Is that how it seems?
A Phiri:
(Silence, head nod, downcast eyes.)
Counselor:
So, when you look to your father for approval for work well done, and he doesn't give it,you say to yourself, ‘He doesn't care for me. If he did he'd show it. He ought to pay me compliments…’
A Phiri:
Something like that.
Counselor:
A Phiri, let's think that through. Does your father's lack of praise and his critical comments show conclusively that he has not, and never will, care for you?
A Phiri:
No, but… it would be nice to have it sometimes.
Counselor:
Right. It would be nice, but is it a necessity? Must you have praise from Dad to feel OK about yourself, to know you've done a good job, and so on?
A Phiri:
No, I guess not.
Counselor:
Why isn't it necessary? How will you know you are a worthwhile person and son, and that your work is of quality?
A Phiri:
(Long silence) I guess… from other people… and… I can think for myself!
Counselor:
Let's try out some independent thinking… Suppose you are a foreman, and supervised and helped to complete the interior work on a house… and you did a good solid job. But your father says to you, ‘Why didn't you do it differently here and there? It doesn't look like the work my previous foreman did.’ How would you ordinarily feel and act?
A Phiri:
Usually I would be a little miffed. I'd feel like saying, ‘Do it yourself!’
Counselor:
You would feel angry and what thoughts would be behind that anger?
A Phiri:
Uh… why doesn't he let me do my work?
Counselor:
Or perhaps, ‘He should accept me and my work without comment. He should appreciate a good job and since he doesn't, he's a louse of a father!’
A Phiri:
(Laughing) Yes, that's close!
Counselor:
Those attitudes bring on anger and resentful behaviour, but what could you think to keep your cool, to feel only irritated?
A Phiri:
Uh … ‘That's just the way Dad is, a crank.’ And… ‘I think it's a good job even if he doesn't.’
Counselor:
Right! Does this crankiness mean he dislikes you?
A Phiri:
No, I guess he can care for me and still be cranky… as we said before… there's no rule that he should be complimentary, even though it would be nice.
Counselor:
How do you feel when thinking about these new attitudes?
A Phiri:
A lot better, still a little peeved, but OK
In this second excerpt, the counselor and client have the goal of improving A Phiri's relationship with his father. Specifically, this means decreasing A Phiri's feelings of hurt and anger towards his father, thus freeing him to deal more effectively with the problem.
The counselor's style has changed and is now more directive and confrontational. The Counselor's responses force A Phiri to examine the thoughts and attitudes that underlie his anger and hurt. Other verbal leads ask A Phiri to examine logically his understanding and dispute what does not make sense. For example, father should give me approval. I am not worth while unless Dad says so.
In the last part, A Phiri is helped to establish more acceptable attitudes towards himself and his father. These new attitudes, and a lowering of emotional distress, prepare A Phiri to develop assertive behaviour when interacting with his father.
Application to the Case Example
The process of rational-emotive counseling passes through four stages (Grieger and Boyd, 1979), the first being an exploration of the client's emotive-behavioural difficulties, and an identification / diagnosis of those irrational interpretations that create problems. Next the counselor helps the client to gain insight into his or her irrational ideas, and the ways in which they upset emotions and behaviour. The irrationalities are then challenged and restructured into more rational interpretations, and a re-education process is followed, so that clients use their rational thinking to adapt new life patterns of emotion and behaviour.
In the excerpt from session two in the foregoing example, the rational-emotive approach is evident. The counselor targets A Phiri's demand for his father's approval, helps him see how he bases his own self-worth on his father's praise, and then encourages him to dispute (think through) his irrational ideas. The counselor uses interpretative and confrontational techniques to foster insight and self-responsibility. A Phiri quickly lessens his anger and hurt by thinking more rationally and, with further counseling and work at home, he could make these changes permanent.
