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Course: PEBL 101: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY & DESIGN FOR BUSINESS > Section: UNIT 3b: TYPES, APPROACHES, STRATEGIES OF RESEARCH AND RESEARCH DESIGNS (CTD…)

Unit 3b Learning Outcomes

Indicative Content

Strategies of research, Research Designs

Intended learning outcomes for unit 3:

By the end of Unit 3, you will be able to:

1. distinguish between types, approaches, strategies of research and research designs.
2. apply knowledge of approaches, strategies and research designs to plan for and conduct respective business research studies

Unit 3b E-tivities

Learning Outcome(s) addressed: Unit 3b supports Module Learning Outcomes 2, 3, 4, 5 & 6.

Purpose: Unit 3b you will enable you learn the different research strategies and designs.

Over to you: As was pointed out in Unit 3a, the type of research, approach, strategies and designs depend on the research problem. The specific research problem is the basis for you to decide how you will approach a task and who you will include. In this part of Unit 3, you are expected to learn the situations under which different research strategies and designs apply.

Preparatory research: In order to learn the types and approaches of research;

1. read the minilecture about strategies of research here.
2. read minilecture about research designs here.
3. read pages 116 – 127 of Research Methods for Business by  Sekarani (2003) about strategies of research and research designs here.
4. Read about Units of Analysis here.

E-tivity 3.4: Having read about research strategies and designs, identify a business example for each strategy and desing. In your group forum, create a new discussion topic called E-tivity 3.4. Post your suggested examples by 26^th February 2019.

E-tivity 3.5: Comment on contributions of at least 2 other learners and improve yours if necessary. Save your improved work in your Portfolio by 28^th February 2019.

E-tivity 3.6: In the group discussion forum, create another new discussion topic in your group forum titled ‘E-tivity 3.6. Under it, discuss and agree on the most suitable research strategy and research design(s) applicable for the concept paper that you are preparing. Select a weaver for this section who should summarise the final solution for E-tivity 3.6 and post it under the discussion topic titled ‘Concept Paper’ that you created under E-tivity 2.1 by 3^rd March 2019.

Link to other Units: Unit 3b links to Units 1, 2, 4, 5, 6, 7 & 8.

Anticipated time required for Unit 3b activities: 4 hours

Deadlines for Unit 3b activities:

E-tivity 3.4: Business example for each strategy and design: 26^th February 2019

E-tivity 3.5: Commenting on contributions of at least 2 other learners: 228^th February 2019

E-tivity 3.3: Incorporating research strategy and designs in concept paper: 3^rd March 2019

STRATEGIES OF RESEARCH

After getting the approaches we now go and look for strategies

There are three generic strategies i.e.

1.Experiments

2.Case study

3.Survey

1.Experiments

These represent a scientific approach in which a selected sample is subjected to a particular condition (stimulus) and then changes that result from this condition are recorded and reported. These changes may be compared with a control group not subjected to the condition or stimulus or with the state of the same group before the stimulus condition was applied.

Experiments may either be field experiments or lab experiments.

a)Field experiments

These are conducted to establish cause and effect relationships using the same natural environment in which the dependent variable normally functions but manipulating the independent variable.

For example, a manager wants to determine the cause and effect relationship between interest rates and the inclinations of clients to save or deposit money in the bank. She selects the four branches of similar size, number of depositors, similar deposit patterns and the like. For one week only she advertises the annual rate for new certificates of deposit received during that week in the following manner: the interest would be 9% in one branch, 8% in another branch, 10% in the third branch and in the fourth branch the interest remains unchanged at 5%.Within a week, she would be able to determine the effects, if any, of interest rates on deposit mobilization.

b)Lab experiments

These refer to experiments done to establish cause and effect relationships beyond the possibility of the least doubt. This requires the creation of an artificial, contrived environment in which all the extraneous factors are strictly controlled. Similar subjects are chosen carefully to respond to certain manipulated stimuli.

Using the above example, the banker may want to establish the causal connection between interest rates and saving beyond doubt. To establish this relationship, she creates an artificial environment by recruiting 40 business students in their final year of study and who are approximately the same age. She splits them in four groups and deposits Shs. 1,000,000 on each group’s account to utilize for either spending, saving for the future or both.

The bank manager manipulates the interest rates by offering 6% interest rate on savings for group 1, 8% for group 2, 9% for group 3 and 1% for group 4.

Here the manager has created an artificial laboratory environment and has manipulated interest rates for savings. If the banker finds that students who were offered more interest are inclined to save more, then she would be able to establish the cause and effect relationship between interest rates and the disposition to save.

2.Case Study

This is an intensive study of one or a few related cases in the population. It is usually used when the researcher is more interested in a deeper understanding of a problem than in generalizing the findings across the population. The in-depth investigation in the case study may be aimed at identifying or questioning an existing theory. A case study can be used to generate a new hypothesis which can then be subjected to a broader test in another study.

The term case-study usually refers to a fairly intensive examination of a single unit such as a person, a small group of people, or a single company. Case-studies involve measuring what is there and how it got there. In this sense, it is historical. It can enable the researcher to explore, unravel and understand problems, issues and relationships. It cannot, however, allow the researcher to generalise, that is, to argue that from one case-study the results, findings or theory developed apply to other similar case-studies. The case looked at may be unique and, therefore not representative of other instances. It is, of course, possible to look at several case-studies to represent certain features of management that we are interested in studying. The case-study approach is often done to make practical improvements. Contributions to general knowledge are incidental.

The case-study method has four steps:

1. Determine the present situation.
2. Gather background information about the past and key variables.
3. Test hypotheses. The background information collected will have been analysed for possible hypotheses. In this step, specific evidence about each hypothesis can be gathered. This step aims to eliminate possibilities which conflict with the evidence collected and to gain confidence for the important hypotheses. The culmination of this step might be the development of an experimental design to test out more rigorously the hypotheses developed, or it might be to take action to remedy the problem.
4. Take remedial action. The aim is to check that the hypotheses tested actually work out in practice. Some action, correction or improvement is made and a re-check carried out on the situation to see what effect the change has brought about.

The case-study enables rich information to be gathered from which potentially useful hypotheses can be generated. It can be a time-consuming process. It is also inefficient in researching situations which are already well structured and where the important variables have been identified. They lack utility when attempting to reach rigorous conclusions or determining precise relationships between variables.

3. Survey

This is the most commonly used strategy in business. Data is collected from the entire population or in a larger sample and more often not many variables are investigated. Because of this wider coverage, surveys permit comparison and generalization of findings in a cross section of the study area (other conditions constant). For the same reason, surveys are more elaborate but time consuming e.g. opinion polls, and cost of living indices.

RESEARCH DESIGNS

A Research design is the determination of the approach and strategy that will best meet the research objectives and answer the research questions. The method that best meets the research objectives is a function of the type of research that one is carrying out.

Research designs are broadly categorised into the following:

1.Research Designs Based On Purpose Of The Research

2.Research Designs Based On Time Series

3. Other Types Of Research Designs

The above three categories will be discussed in more detail in the sections that follow;

Research Designs )ctd..)

1.RESEARCH DESIGNS BASED ON PURPOSE OF THE RESEARCH

These include;

a)Descriptive research.

This describes the phenomena as they exist. It is undertaken in order to ascertain and be able to describe the characteristics of the variables of interest in a situation. There is no attempt to link or associate findings of descriptive research with any other phenomenon e.g. what are the characteristics of successful business women?

Descriptive studies are also undertaken to understand the characteristics of organizations and populations that follow certain common practices. It is the type of research that explores and describes the data or characteristics needed for the research. The purpose of descriptive research is just to describe and not to establish any relationships.

The goal of a descriptive study hence is to offer a profile or to describe relevant aspects of the phenomena of interest to the researcher from an individual, organizational, industry-oriented, or other perspective. Most research studies will include some descriptive questions. Any researcher will be interested in classifying the sample in terms of such extraneous variables as age, gender, etc. Descriptive research will usually result in descriptive statistics such as Means, standard deviation, percentages, etc.

Advantages

- ·The people being studied are unaware so they act naturally or as they normally do in everyday situations.
- ·It is less expensive and less time consuming than quantitative experiments.
- ·Collects a large amount of data for detailed studying.
- ·As it is used to describe and not make any conclusions, it is easier to start the research with it.
- ·It can provide a lot of information and also identify further areas of study/ research.
- ·The study does not involve certain variables to be studied. For example education research and experiences may contain many variables that are not realistically controllable and cannot be studied in a long time.
- ·It is very useful in studying abstract ideas like customer satisfaction etc where it is not possible to develop models.
- ·The study is also very flexible in that the researcher selects the method depending on what he/she expects to find rather than selecting the method and then studying.
- ·It is possible to collect the data from large geographical area since data collection is done once and one does not have to go back.

Disadvantages

- ·The researcher cannot identify the cause behind a phenomenon; you can just describe and report the observations.
- ·Requires more skills.
- ·Response rate is low in this research.
- ·Results of this research can change over the period of time without the researcher knowing.

b)Exploratory research.

This is used in circumstances where little is known about the problem under investigation and the purpose of the research is to break ground about the characteristic and the nature of the problem. At the end we may establish theories/hypothesis about the problem.

An exploratory study is undertaken when not so much is known about the situation at hand or when no information is available on how similar problems or research issues have been solved in the past. In such a case, extensive preliminary work needs to be done to gain familiarity with the phenomena in the situation, and understand what is occurring. In essence, exploratory studies are undertaken to better comprehend the nature of the problem.

c)Explanatory research.

This type seeks to explain the phenomenon by associating with other phenomena. With explanatory research, the phenomenon is well known but the research is interested in explaining why it happens the way it does.

It goes beyond describing a phenomenon, especially where the description is already known. For example, if a new group of religious converts or political party followers is already known, an explanatory research may be done to find how the group members join the new groups and why people undergo proselytism.

There are two basic types of explanation i.e. deductive and inductive:

  1. A deductive explanation is one that is derived (deducted) from established universal laws. For example, why do objects thrown into the air return to the earth? The law of gravitational attraction answers this question. In other words, deductions are reasoning from general explanation to specific conclusions.
  2. Inductive explanation is probabilistic explanation applied to phenomena that have no scientific laws explaining them. Inductive reasoning involves drawing conclusions that exceed the information available e.g. Abel and Charles, who are FDC members, support the party. Therefore, all FDC members support the party. Deductive and inductive explanation can be valid or invalid.

Explanatory research aims at answering the questions “how” and “why”

d)Predictive research.

This is used at generating data to be used for forecasting or to make deductions about the events. This is done by establishing associations that are statistically tested for significance and then using these relationships to make inferences about general situations, e.g. what kind of employer is most likely to employ B.COM graduates.

Besides finding how and why about phenomena, Business research also aims at predicting future events. Prediction is foretelling an event before it occurs. Whereas explanation follows an event, prediction precedes it. The ability to make correct prediction is one of the most important qualities of business research. If the predicted event is good, such as economic growth, efforts are made to let it happen. If the predicted event is bad, such as riot at work places, preventive measures are taken.

e)Comparative research designs

These are aimed at comparing a given variable between groups in the same population or in different populations. Suppose our research objective is to establish the difference in the incidence of loan default between businessmen and businesswomen or profitability levels between manufacturers and service providers, a comparative research design would be most applicable. A comparative research design will analyze the difference in mean (x) and variance.

f)Associational Research Design (Causal Versus Correlational)

The aim of associational research is to establish the relationship between the dependent and independent variable. A manager should determine whether a causal or a correlational study is needed to answer the issue at hand. The former type of study is done when it is necessary to establish a definitive cause and effect relationship.

A causal research is done when the researcher is keen on delineating one or more factors that are undoubtedly causing the problem. However, if the manager simply wants a mere identification of the important factors “associated with” the problem, then a correlational study is called for. After data has been collected, correlation coefficients are calculated to determine the scale/degree and direction of relationship between the independent and dependent variables. We need quantitative data to establish the direction, strength and significance.

Examples that call for associational research include;

i)Causal study question: Does smoking cause cancer?

ii)Correlational study question: Are smoking and cancer related?

g) Evaluative research

It is a research by which the effectiveness of business applications are studied, such as studying results of the adoption rate of new technologies disseminated or the extent to which socio-economic strategies addressing particular problems have succeeded or failed. It is also concerned with development of indicators of the quality of life and economic development that have existed for some time.

It started in the 1960s for evaluation of the results of the implementation of donor-funded programmes. Currently, it has developed so much that it is likely to be a permanent component of business/social programmes, development, implementation and evaluation of both established and innovative human service activities.

Its aim is to empirically generate answers to policy- makers, funding organizations, planners and programme staff for questions like:-

(a)Is the intervention reaching the appropriate target group?

(b)Is it implemented in the ways specified?

(c)Is it effective?

(d)How much does it cost?

(e)What are its cost vis-à-vis the effectiveness of the project or programme?

h) Analytical research

This research design often deals with an exercise in exploration and evaluation.

The problem is approached without a predetermined stance. In an analytical paper, it is not the researcher's intent to persuade the audience that his ideas are right while those of others are wrong. Instead, the goal is to offer a critical interpretation of primary and secondary sources that will strengthen analysis of the topic.

Analytical is an adjective meaning to examine the elements, components or structure of something in detail. In chemistry, for instance, if you analyse a substance it means that you break it down into/ identify all its component parts. If you analyse a problem, you work out how the elements, elemental parts or basic principles and evidence are put together to achieve certain effects. The noun form is analysis; you can either "analyse" something or "do an analysis" on it; the meaning is about the same.

The analytical paper poses a question by the writer that requires further investigation. This question is referred to as the "research question" and is the driving force behind the analytical paper; it requires that the writer take no stance and remain objective throughout his/her investigation of the topic.

Research Design (Ctd...)

2.RESEARCH DESIGNS BASED ON TIME SERIES

This gives rise to longitudinal and cross sectional research. The difference lies in the time frame in which the population is observed.

a)Longitudinal research

This is carried out where the researcher wants to study people or phenomena at more than one point in time in order to answer the research question e.g the researcher might want to study employee’s behavior before and after a change in the top management, to learn the effects of the change.

b)Cross-sectional research

This occurs where data are gathered just once, perhaps over a period of days or weeks or months in order to answer a research question. Several similar cases are studied at a particular time. This is also called a snap-shot or one-shot research. The population or sample is observed as it is at the time. A study can be done when data are gathered just once perhaps over a period of time in order to answer a research question.

Eg If a big company desirous of investing in research for a new obesity reduction pill conducted a survey among obese people to see how many of them would be interested in trying the new pill. Such a study would be considered a one-shot or cross-sectional study.

c) Panel Data Research

Panel data research combines both longitudinal and cross-sectional data. It applies multi-dimensional data involving measurements of different characteristics of different organisations over time. Panel data contain observations of multiple phenomena obtained over multiple time periods for the same firms or individuals. As such, panel data consists of researcher's observations of numerous phenomena that were collected over several time periods for the same group of units or entities. For example, a panel data set may be one that follows a given sample of individuals over time and records observations or information on each individual in the sample.

Research Design (Ctd...)

3. OTHER TYPES OF RESEARCH DESIGNS

a.Ethnographical research:

This stems from anthropology which is a study of society and their customs. Ethnography is a phenomenological research methodology in which a researcher seeks to understand patterns of human activity using socially acquired and shared knowledge e.g. loss of hours due to cultural activities such as funerals, weddings, etc.

In ethnography data is collected through observation and it’s more accurate when it is collected by participant observation. It is usually carried out over a long period of time usually spanning several months. To be effective, the researcher must first of all gain the trust of the respondent.

b.Action Research:

This is a phenomenological approach which is applied in nature and usually conducted by the use of case studies. The principle of action research is to diagnose organizational situations and to try and institute change above that situation while constantly observing and monitoring results.

It is usually applicable when the organization is planning change in social systems. It is similar in management consulting project. The researcher and his or her subjects agree before hand on the purpose of the study. They will jointly control its progress or monitor results together. Implementation is the responsibility of the respondent but should be assisted by the researcher. The significance of research is that of solving original current problems. It is also intended to contribute to management science.

c.Participatory Research:

This is another phenomenological methodology in which research is with people rather than on people i.e. respondents are involved in the entire process from designing a research to data collection analysis, engagement in discussions that set directions and monitor the progress of research. In other words, the respondents become co-researchers such that the questions, the responses and conclusions drawn are all shared experience.

d.Triangulation;

Triangulation is simply using different methods to research the same issue with the same unit of analysis (i.e. an in-depth unstructured interview with each member of a household on health care needs following a survey of household heads on the same topic), thus cross-checking one result against another, and increasing the reliability of the result. Contradictory results often bring up important problems with question design, as well as fundamental issues surrounding researcher understanding of a topic.

Triangulation may come at various stages of the research process. It may occur at the methodology stage. It may also occur at the data collection stage. You collect data at different stages and therefore you capture different moods and different opinions of different respondents at different times. Triangulation may occur at the theorizing stage and this is referred to as triangulation of theories e.g. one may use theories generated in a marketing research to generate perspectives about a human resource research.

As opposed to relying on one single form of evidence or perspective as the basis for findings, multiple forms of diverse and redundant types of evidence are used to check the validity and reliability of the findings. Over-relying on any one form of evidence may impact validity of the findings.

By using multiple forms of evidence and perspectives, a truer portrait of the variable can be developed. While the same biases in evidence collection still come into play, because more types of evidence are being used to form one's opinion about the variables, there are more cross checks on the accuracy of the decision.

e) Cohort studies

Here a group of study elements called a cohort is exposed to a risky factor and its resulting states are compared to another group also called cohort that has not also been exposed to a risk factor.

Research Designs (ctd...)

Multiple Research Designs

It is possible and indeed advantageous to use more than one approach in a single research design. This is usually so when the research is multi purpose covering questions that call for different approaches.

Importance Of Appropriate Research Designs

It is important to make a careful selection of the research design because the choice affects the validity and reliability of research findings. Validity means the conclusion of the research study are true and reliability means that a replicated study using the same method in similar circumstances will produce the same conclusion. To select the appropriate design, one needs to read widely in order to obtain key knowledge about the events surrounding the research problem.

Secondly, one needs to know the target population. In addition, one needs to select the sample scientifically and to pre-test the design and data collection instruments.

A good research design should take into consideration the following:

1. It should be based on the problem definition and research objectives
2. It should consider the extent of the rigor desired in relation to cost considerations
3. It should minimize the bias and maximize the reliability of the data collected and conclusions reached.
4. It should ensure adequate means of collecting data
5. The researcher must select the research design in light of the availability of skills to handle the particular design
6. The researcher must ensure that there is enough time or money to complete the study using the selected design.

UNIT OF ANALYSIS

When a researcher formulates a research problem, s/he must give serious consideration to the unit of analysis, the most elementary part of the phenomenon to be studied. The unit or level of analysis influences the research design, data collection, and data analysis decisions. Does the research problem call for the study of perceptions, attitudes or behavior? Should the scientist concentrate on individuals or groups, institutions or societies?

In principle, there are no limitations on the selection of units to be analyzed in a research project. However, once a scientist has made a selection, s/he must adjust the research procedures, especially the scope and the level of generalization and theorizing, so that they are congruent with, or suitable to, the units of analysis chosen. This part of the research process is crucial as units of analysis have unique attributes; hence it is often misleading to shift from one unit to another. Generalizations based on individuals as units of analysis and generalizations based on groups can be different.

A major reason for such disparities is that similar concepts are often used to refer to attributes that can differ in their observable characteristics depending on the unit of analysis. For instance, the concept “survival” is used to explain the behavior of individuals, groups, formal organizations and nations, each a distinct unit of analysis. But “survival” means different things when applied to these different units. There is no a priori reason to assume that the relationships between “survival” and other attributes will be similar for all of them.

For example, the behavioral consequences of survival can be similar for individuals, i.e. physical survival. However, when organizations are considered, survival may mean the continuing legal status of the firm even if it completely changes its product line. In the case of nations, survival may mean the continuity of political boundaries.

REVISION QUESTIONS

1. Which of the following is NOT a necessary step in conducting experimental research?

a)Manipulation of an independent variable

b)Selection of measuring instruments

c)Creating a hypothesis stating a causal relationship between variables

d)Dividing the sample into subgroups to control for extraneous variables

2. In an experimental design, the dependent variable is:

a)the one that is not manipulated and in which any changes are observed.

b)the one that is manipulated in order to observe any effects on the other.

c)a measure of the extent to which personal values affect research.

d)an ambiguous concept whose meaning depends on how it is defined.

3. Which of the following research questions should NOT be answered using action research methods?

a)What issues concerning school uniforms do parents of children in this school need more information about in order to decide whether they would support a mandatory uniform policy?

b)How do parents in this school feel about mandatory school uniforms for their children?

c)What kinds of uniform policies would parents of students in this school support?

d)Is parent attitude toward school uniforms related to their socioeconomic status?

4. Quantitative researchers rarely claim to have established causality because:

a)they are more concerned with publishing the results of their reliability tests.

b)they do not believe that this is an appropriate goal to be striving for.

c)they keep forgetting which of the variables they have manipulated.

d)they tend to use cross-sectional designs, which produce only correlations

5. What is the main purpose of pilot testing?

a)To accumulate responses

b)To identify respondent

c)To identify potential problems

d)To evaluate the research

6. What are the disadvantages of descriptive research?

7. Give examples of exploratory research

8. Laboratory experiments are designed so as to:

a)establish external validity

b)be as close as possible to a real-life experience

c)control variables

d)justify keeping rats and pigeons in the department

9. Because she is intrigued by carrying out _______________, Constance positioned herself at some traffic lights. She then either stared or did not stare into the eyes of drivers who were waiting for a green light. She then measured whether her staring affected the speed at which they took off. (We must assume that an ethics committee gave approval for this!)
a) archival research

b) field experiments

c) surveys

d) case studies

10. Define a research problem. Describe any research problem in commerce and present a suitable research design which you think would be feasible for a research project to solve that problem. Comment on the strengths, weaknesses, and practical aspects of the design.

11. Describe and explain the essential characteristics of experimental research.

12. Discuss an example of a research topic that would be better suited to ethnography than a survey. Explain your choice.

13. Explain the significance of field notes for qualitative research.

14. Why is it problematic to draw cause-and-effect conclusions based on correlative data?

15. In what type of study does a researcher study an individual subject in depth?

a) Cross-sectional research

b) Laboratory observation

c) Case study

d) Survey

16. Describe any five research designs indicating where each is most appropriate and how each can be used.

17.Write short notes on the following terms as used in Business research

(i)Descriptive research(ii)Explanatory research

18. Identify and explain qualities of a plausible research design.

19. What is a research design?

20. List any research designs

21. Using a topic of your choice, explain how you would use descriptive research design

22. List the research designs based on purpose of the research

23. List the research designs based on time series.

24. Under what circumstances is longitudinal research design used?

25. Distinguish between basic research and applied research.

26. What are the three strategies of research?

27. What is associational research design and when is it applied?

28. Distinguish between explanatory and exploratory research designs

29. Write short notes about the following;

- Ethnographic research
- Action research
- Participatory research
- Triangulation
- Cohort studies

30. (a) Write short notes on each of the following concepts;

(i)Experimental designs

(ii) Case studies

(iii) Quasi experimental designs

(b) Outline the main differences between causal and correlation studies.

(c) When a researcher wants to establish the cause and effect relationships in an artificial setting, they must control all the other variables that might contaminate the relationship. Explain the ways in which this control can be effectively achieved.