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Course: PEBL 101: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY & DESIGN FOR BUSINESS > Section: UNIT 5a: DATA COLLECTION

Unit 5a Learning Outcomes

Indicative Content

Types of Data – Qualitative and quantitative data, Sources of data:  secondary vs primary sources, Methods of data collection (Interviews, Observation)

Intended Learning Outcomes for Unit 5a:

By the end of Unit 5a, you will be able to;

1. distinguish between the different types of data
2. apply appropriate data collection methods depending on the research problem, type of data required and the target population

Unit 5a E-tivities

Outcome(s) addressed: Unit 5a addresses Module Learning Outcomes 2, 3 & 4.

Purpose: The purpose of this unit is to enable you learn the how to collect different types of data using the most appropriate tools. Each of you will share different knowledge and experience on data types, source and data collection methods.

Over to you: Data that a researcher collects will strongly depend on the research problem and the nature of target population. Even in your ordinary lives, there are cases when you have had to collect data to enable you solve a problem. It could be an assignment you want to answer. It could be a product that you want to buy but have little information about it. It could be information about the quality of services that you offer customers. In this Unit, you will learn and be able to describe the different types and sources of data. The unit introduces you to concepts vital for completing Units 8. There you go!

Preparatory research: In order to learn the introduction to data collection and the data collection methods;

1. Read the minilecture on introduction to data collection available here.
2. Read minilecutre on data collection methods here.
3. Read about data collection on pages 218 - 236 of Research Methodology for Business by Sekarani (2003) available here.

E-tivity 5.1: Propose the types and sources of data which can be used to assess the current business environment for the soft drink industry. Post your findings on the discussion forum and comment on others’ postings. These should be complete by 20^th March 2019.

E-tivity 5.2: In the group discussion forum, create another new discussion topic in your group forum titled ‘E-tivity 5.2’. Under it, evaluate the data collection methods so far learnt. Post your comments to the forum by 24^th March 2019.

Link to other Units: Unit 5a links to Units 1, 2, 4, 6, 7 & 8.

Anticipated time required for Unit 5a activities: 5 hours

Deadlines for Unit 5a activities:

E-tivity 5.1: Proposed types and sources of data which can be used to assess the current business environment for the soft drink industry: 20^th March 2019.

E-tivity 5.2: Evaluating data collection methods so far learnt: 24^th March 2019.

What is Data?

Data Collection involves going out to the field, contacting the respondents or getting written reports/ publications pertaining to the problem and gathering facts of a given type from them.

What is Data?

These are facts in raw or unorganized form (such as alphabets, words, numbers, or symbols) that refer to, or represent, conditions, ideas, or objects on the participants about whom the researcher is studying. Although data is limitless and present everywhere in the universe, a research has to determine the kind of data that will be necessary to answer the research questions.

Acknowledgment : A lot of the content in this section has been got from

http://brent.tvu.ac.uk/dissguide/hm1u3/hm1u3text3.htm

TYPES OF DATA

TYPES OF DATA

1. Quantitative data

2. Qualitative data

1. Quantitative data

This is data that is in numerical form often collected from numerical variables such as age, height, income, distance, weight, length, years, revenue, cost values, expenses values etc.

2. Qualitative data

This is data that is in descriptive form often collected on abstract variables where opinions, feelings and attitudes are studied.

For more about the difference between quantitative and qualitative data, click on the link below and watch the video;

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=EcKrT_IegoU

SOURCES OF DATA

Two sources mainly;

1.            Primary data Sources

2.            Secondary data Sources

1. Primary Data Sources

Primary data refers to raw facts collected or generated for a given research. It is gathered originally for the first time. Primary sources are original sources from which the researcher directly collects data that have not been previously collected e.g, collection of data directly by the researcher on brand awareness, brand preference, brand loyalty and other aspects of consumer behaviour from a sample of consumers by interviewing them. It can be got using different methods i.e. Interviewing, questioning, observing, Experimentation, participating. It is collected for looking for particular research information.

It is used in most cases when there is no secondary data available or when the data available is not useful. In such circumstances, the researcher is made to go in for original data collection i.e. Primary data. This necessitates contacting the respondents or specific research prospects i.e. Customers, Employees, Middlemen, Salespeople, etc

Advantages of Primary Data

a) ·It is an original source of opinions and behavior of the population ie it is Basic data. In essence, the questions the researchers ask are tailored to elicit the data that will help them with their study. Researchers collect the data themselves, using surveys, interviews and direct observations (such as observing safety practices on a shop floor). The best thing about using primary collection methods is the researchers will be presented with original.  Unlike the secondary collection methods, the researchers will directly interact with the source of information and get the data that is original and not analysed to suit specific premises.

b) ·It is possible to capture the changes occurring in the course of time.

c) It is flexible to the advantage of the researcher.

d) Un biased information is collected since it is got directly from the population

e) Relevance of data is checked while data collection is being done. Primary data collection focuses on the specific issues, unlike secondary data which may contain details that are not needed by the researcher. This means that the researchers will only set out to find more information about specific issues that matters to the; what’s more they have different methodologies to use, ranging from focus groups to email.

f) Accuracy of facts can be verified at the point of collecting data. Collecting primary data is one of the best ways to ensure that the information is credible and accurate.

g) The researcher can verify reputation and credibility of sources of data if he/she goes out to look for them and facts about them.

h) In this day and age, conducting primary research is easy with the different mediums that allow researchers to freely reach different people. It can be also collected across the national borders through emails and posts.

i) One of the main advantages of collecting primary data is the amount of control the researchers have. This allows them to determine the type of method they will use in collecting the data and how long it will take them to get the data, thus enabling them to focus on specific aspects of their research.

j) Primary data can be collected using a number of ways like interviews, telephone surveys, focus groups etc. It depends on the descretion of the researcher and the type of research problem.

k) Primary data is current and it can better give a realistic view to the researcher about the topic under consideration presently.

Disadvantages of Primary Data

a) It is expensive to obtain. For collection of primary data where interview is to be conducted the coverage is limited and for wider coverage a more number of researchers are required and more money needed. With more people, time and efforts involvement, the cost of the data collection goes high. The importance of the research may go down.

b) It is time consuming. The researchers will need to make certain preparations in order to handle the different demands of the processes and at the same time, manage time effectively. A lot of time and efforts are required for data collection. By the time the is data collected, analysed and report is ready, the problem of the research becomes very serious or outdated. So the purpose of the research may be defeated.

c) It requires extensive research personnel who are skilled

d) Large volumes of data are usually got which may be difficult to manage. The researchers will collect large volumes of data when they collect primary data. Since they will interact with different people, they will end up with large volumes of data, which they will need to go through when analyzing and evaluating their findings.

e) Direct and personal intervention has to be there but if some respondents are shy while others are unco-oporative, data may not be got.

f) Some respondents do not give timely responses which will delay the analysis which is not he case if secondary data was used.

g) Sometimes, the respondents may give fake, socially acceptable and sweet answers and try to cover up the realities.

h) It has design problems like how to design the surveys. The questions must be simple to understand and respond to.

2. Secondary Data Sources

Secondary data is data that already exists and was prepared or developed for some purpose other than to solve the problem at hand. It is already assembled data.

Sources of secondary data

a)            Internal sources.

This can be found within the organisation or entity being studied and involves internal records within the organization i.e. accounting and financial records, minutes of meetings, sales reports, Suppliers’ records from the purchasing department, etc.

b)            External sources.

These include publications from different agencies or organisations outside the entity concerned. Sources may be trade and industrial reports held by government or private agencies, consultants’ report, publications from international bodies like U.N, W.H.O, World bank, etc, published text books, Mono-grams, News papers, Advertising agencies, Independent research firms, magazines, Internet etc.

Merits or Advantages of Secondary data

1.      It is economical. Secondary data is cheaper to obtain as compared to primary data i.e. secondary data does not involve designing or printing data collection tools, does not involve having field workers, transporting and maintaining them, etc. It usually involves the researcher going to the library and getting information from published records compiled by somebody else.

2.      Availability. Secondary data is available more readily compared to primary data which may be solicited from respondents who may be totally unapproachable.

3.      Time is saved in acquiring data. Not only is available secondary data cheaper than primary data but secondary data can also be obtained more quickly.

4.      Does not require very skilled staff. Someone not skilled in research methodology can be trained in a short time to find documents and look for information in them.

Demerits/ Limitations or Disadvantages of Secondary data

a)      Irrelevancy. The researcher should find out whether the data provided is relevant to the study in question. The data may not be relevant to the current problem.

b)      Accuracy of the data. The researcher should find out the competence of the researchers who carried out that study. Look at the sources used at that time, the methods used in data collection, etc. This should be considered in line with accuracy of the data.

c)      Reputation and creditability of the sources. The researcher should find out how reliable and credible the sources to be used are. Some sources are not credible. This is to be noted especially of the internet sources.

d)      Variations in data. The variations in secondary data usually affect the value of the data. The variations may be in terms of the units of measurement; definitions terms, classes used, currencies, etc. The variation of secondary units of measurement is a draw back of secondary data i.e. if you are looking at consumer income, this may be measured by looking at individual personal income, house hold income, spending pattern, tax returns, etc.

Errors. The advantages of primary sources of data lie in the availability of explanation of how the data is collected, tools of analysis, and reliability of the data, etc. On the contrary, secondary data sources are difficult of verify whether errors were made or not

N.B      The advantages of secondary data are the disadvantages of primary data.

Factors For Choosing a Source Of Data.

These are factors that give guidance to choosing which source of data to use. They include;

1.      The nature, scope and objective of the research.

2.      Availability of funds. Secondary data is cheaper compared to primary data.

3.      Availability of time. Primary data involves a lot of time compared to secondary data. Data collection is done in a prescribed time period which can determine the source of data.

4.      Literacy level of the respondents. This looks at whether the respondents are literates or illiterates. Literate respondents are sometimes more willing to give information compared to illiterates who may not understand the language. The researcher may incur translation costs.

5.      Accessibility and conduct of the respondents. Are they willing to give information? If yes, you may go in for primary data but if not, go in for secondary data.

6.      Availability of written information on a subject. If data is already available, then secondary data can be used. However, if it is not available, then the researcher should go out in the field and get the information i.e. primary data.

METHODS OF DATA COLLECTION

Collecting data will involve going out in the field and contacting the respondents of a given type of research depending on the definition of the survey population and sample (primary data) or reading reports and other publications pertaining to the problem (Secondary data).

The different methods that can be used for collecting data include

1.      Interview/ Survey method

2.      Observation

3.      Projective Techniques

4.      Experimentation

5.      Documentation review/ Archival Research (for secondary data)

1. INTERVIEW/ SURVEY METHOD

This involves asking respondents questions indirectly (sending or leaving questionnaires with them) or directly.

A) QUESTIONNAIRE METHOD OF INTERVIEWING

This method involves designing a questionnaire and sending it to respondents to fill or the researcher administering it directly by physically distributing, asking respondents to fill in or filling it in on their behalf.

A questionnaire may be defined as a set of formalized questions used in a survey to collect information which is later analyzed to provide results necessary for solving a given research problem. The questionnaire could be administered by the research or it could be sent to the respondents to be administered by respondents themselves. The questionnaire should therefore be properly designed to minimize measurement errors.

Questionnaires can be administered by the researcher directly, by mail to the respondent, through research assistants or through the internet.

The questionnaire is said to be the most "used and abused" method of gathering information by the lazy man because often, if designed by an unqualified person, it is poorly organized, vaguely worded, and excessively lengthy.

For a look a sample questionnaire, go to the website of the Department of Open and distance Learning, or click on the link below to view a questionnaire in the appendix;

http://www.distance.mak.ac.ug/sites/default/files/publications/rutaremwaamos.pdf

General advantages of questionnaires

1. Large amounts of information can be collected from a large number of people in a short period of time and in a relatively cost effective way.Generally it is relatively quick to collect information using a questionnaire. Information can be collected from a large portion of a group. This potential is not often realised, as returns from questionnaires are usually low. However return rates can be dramatically improved if the questionnaire is delivered and responded to in class time. In other words, a large sample of the given population can be contacted at relatively low cost. Questionnaires are very cost effective when compared to face-to-face interviews. This is especially true for studies involving large sample sizes and large geographic areas. Written questionnaires become even more cost effective as the number of research questions increases.
2. Can be carried out by the researcher or by any number of people with limited affect to its validity and reliability since
3. The results of the questionnaires can usually be quickly and easily quantified by either a researcher or through the use of a software package
4. Can be analysed more easily, 'scientifically' and objectively than other forms of research. Data entry and tabulation for nearly all surveys can be easily done with many computer software packages.
5. When data has been quantified, it can be used to compare and contrast other research and may be used to measure change.
6. Positivists believe that quantitative data can be used to create new theories and / or test existing hypotheses
7. The responses are gathered in a standardised way, so questionnaires are more objective than interviews. Questionnaires reduce bias. There is uniform question presentation and no middle-man bias. The researcher's own opinions will not influence the respondent to answer questions in a certain manner. There are no verbal or visual clues to influence the respondent.
8. They are the most familiar and simple method to administer to staff and managers and will therefore receive less resistance in application.
9. The format is familiar and simple to most respondents hence making questionnaires easily accepted by them and compared to other methods. In case they are simple and quick for the respondents to complete, they will be preferred compared to direct interviews. Questionnaires are familiar to most people. Nearly everyone has had some experience completing questionnaires and they generally do not make people apprehensive.
10. They can be used for sensitive topics which users may feel uncomfortable speaking about to an interviewer.
11. Respondents have time to think about their answers; they are not usually required to reply immediately. Questionnaires impose less pressure to the respondent than telephone or face-to-face surveys. When a respondent receives a questionnaire in the mail, he is free to complete the questionnaire on his own time-table. Unlike other research methods, the respondent is not interrupted by the research instrument.

General disadvantages of questionnaires

1. Is considered to be inadequate to understand some forms of information especially changes of emotions, behaviour, feelings etc.
2. Phenomenologists state that quantitative research is simply an artificial creation by the researcher, as it is asking only a limited amount of information without explanation
3. Questionnaires are standardised so it is not possible to explain any points in the questions that participants might misinterpret. This could be partially solved by piloting the questions on a small group of students or at least friends and colleagues. It is advisable to do this anyway. respondents may misunderstand questions because of poor design and ambiguous language. Some respondents may misunderstand questions because of poor design and ambiguous language.
4. There is no way to tell how thoughtful and truthful a respondent is being. Respondents may answer superficially especially if the questionnaire takes a long time to complete. The common mistake of asking too many questions should be avoided. Another disadvantage of questionnaires is the inability to probe responses. Questionnaires are structured instruments. They allow little flexibility to the respondent with respect to response format. In essence, they often lose the "flavor of the response" (i.e., respondents often want to qualify their answers). By allowing frequent space for comments, the researcher can partially overcome this disadvantage. Comments are among the most helpful of all the information on the questionnaire, and they usually provide insightful information that would have otherwise been lost. Questionnaires may appear impersonal and so the respondents may not fill them with the necessary care needed since they are writing in the absence of the interviewer.
5. The respondent may be forgetful or not thinking within the full context of the situation. Questionnaires, like many evaluation methods occur after the event, so participants may forget important issues.
6. People may read differently into each question and therefore reply based on their own interpretation of the question - i.e. what is 'good' to someone may be 'poor' to someone else, therefore there is a level of subjectivity that is not acknowledged
7. There is a level of researcher imposition, meaning that when developing the questionnaire, the researcher is making their own decisions and assumptions as to what is and is not important...therefore they may be missing something that is of importance. The process of coding in the case of open ended questions opens a great possibility of subjectivity by the researcher.
8. Open-ended questions can generate large amounts of data that can take a long time to process and analyse. One way of limiting this would be to limit the space available to students so their responses are concise or to sample the students and survey only a portion of them.
9. Some respondents may not be willing to answer the questions. They might not wish to reveal the information or they might think that they will not benefit from responding perhaps even be penalised by giving their real opinion. They should therefore be told why the information is being collected and how the results will be beneficial. They should be asked to reply honestly and told that if their response is negative this is just as useful as a more positive opinion. If possible the questionnaire should be anonymous.
10. . In some situations they can take a long time to design. Without qualified staff, some questions will be difficult to phrase and if not phrased properly, the findings will not show the behaviour of the target population.
11. They are difficult to administer especially if the population scattered. In case respondents are in different locations, a researcher will find it difficult for each of them to have a questionnaire.
12. In case the researcher forgets to ask a question, he/she cannot usually go back to respondents, especially if they are anonymous. It is sometimes difficult to obtain a sufficient number of responses, especially from postal questionnaires. There is likely to be a high non-response rate when most respondents do not post the questionnaires back. One major disadvantage of written questionnaires is the possibility of low response rates. Low response is the curse of statistical analysis. It can dramatically lower our confidence in the results. Response rates vary widely from one questionnaire to another (10% - 90%), however, well-designed studies consistently produce high response rates.
13. Those who have an interest in the subject may be more likely to respond, skewing the sample. For example, if a researcher is researching about attitudes of respondents about a supermarket in an area, it is likely that only people interested in buying from supermarkets will respond to the questionnaires.
14. Respondents may ignore certain questions especially if they do not appeal to them or they are scared of disclosing the information or any other reason. This will make several non-response questions.
15. They are not suitable to investigate long, complex issues that need a lot of care and narration. They may require follow up research to investigate issues in greater depth and identify ways to solve problems highlighted.
16. Questionnaires are unsuitable for some kinds of respondents, e.g.  the illiterate. These may have vital information to the study but are left out. Questionnaires are simply not suited for some people. For example, a written survey to a group of poorly educated people might not work because of reading skill problems. More frequently, people are turned off by written questionnaires because of misuse.
17. There is the danger of questionnaire fatigue if surveys are carried out too frequently. It is common for respondents to refuse filling questionnaires because the have done so many times and are fed-up of doing so.
18. Nearly ninety percent of all communication is visual. Gestures and other visual cues are not available with written questionnaires. The lack of personal contact will have different effects depending on the type of information being requested. A questionnaire requesting factual information will probably not be affected by the lack of personal contact. A questionnaire probing sensitive issues or attitudes may be severely affected.
19. When using postal/mail, internet and computer questionnaires and they are mailed back or arrive by post, it's natural to assume that the respondent is the same person you sent the questionnaire to. This may not actually be the case. Many times business questionnaires get handed to other employees for completion. Housewives sometimes respond for their husbands.. For a variety of reasons, the respondent may not be who you think he/she is. It is a confounding error inherent in questionnaires.
20. Respondent can read all questions beforehand and then decide whether to complete or not. For example, perhaps because it is too long, too complex, uninteresting, or too personal.

Interview Method (Ctd...)

Parts of a Questionnaire/ Principles of Questionnaire design

a.   Its identification.

This section is mainly for purposes of identifying and introducing the questionnaire. It includes the title of the questionnaire, the purpose of the survey, greetings (if necessary), explanations about the research and the researcher, the serial numbering and any other necessary details. The general theme of the questionnaire should be made explicit. You should state who you are; why the data is required; give, if necessary, an assurance of confidentiality and/or anonymity; and contact number and address or telephone number. This ensures that the respondents know what they are committing themselves to, and also that they understand the context of their replies. If possible, you should offer an estimate of the completion time. Instructions for return should be included with the return date made obvious. For example: ‘It would be appreciated if you could return the completed questionnaire by... if at all possible’.

Instructions for completion

You need to provide clear and unambiguous instructions for completion. Within most questionnaires these are general instructions and specific instructions for particular question structures. It is usually best to separate these, supplying the general instructions as a preamble to the questionnaire, but leaving the specific instructions until the questions to which they apply. The response method should be indicated (circle, tick, cross, etc.). Wherever possible, and certainly if a slightly unfamiliar response system is employed, you should give an example.

b.         Information necessary for identifying the respondent (Background/bio data. This entails questions about the respondent.  It tries to identify the specific characteristics of the respondent. This section should work to motivate the respondents to answer questions in the questionnaire. It usually includes questions about the demographic characteristics e.g. the location, age, gender, marital status, education background, income levels, etc.

It should be noted however, that these may be sometimes sensitive questions and if not very necessary, they may be avoided.

c.         Questions of the content of the survey.

This is designed to collect information regarding the subject matter of the research project. It can be put into sections depending on the variables, their indicators or the objectives. The sections vary depending on the topic.

Question content should be derived from the major problem of study. In considering any question, it is wise for the researcher to establish whether respondents will give any kind of answer to most questions even if they are not well informed about them. If you are not sure that the respondent has the answer, then you may avoid factual questions.

d)         Control questions.

These are questions, which are included in the questionnaire to ensure and crosscheck on the correctness and accuracy of the respondent’s answers.

The respondents may have a tendency of giving wrong information. The researcher should therefore design the questionnaire in such a way as to eliminate or be able to identify wrong information. Control questions act as checkpoints.

e) Thank you

Respondents to questionnaires rarely benefit personally from their efforts and the least the researcher can do is to thank them. Even though the covering letter will express appreciation for the help given, it is also a nice gesture to finish the questionnaire with a further thank you.

Other general Principles of Questionnaire design

a)         Hygienic factor.

This looks at how tidy the questionnaire is. It considers cleanliness, structure of questions, nature of presentation, etc with in the questionnaire. The hygienic factor should make the questionnaire user friendly. Questions should not be too complicated and too long. Easy and short  questions make life easy for the respondents.

b) Appearance

Appearance is usually the first feature of the questionnaire to which the recipient reacts. A neat and professional look will encourage further consideration of your request, increasing your response rate. In addition, careful thought to layout should help your analysis. There are a number of simple rules to help improve questionnaire appearance:

- Liberal spacing makes the reading easier.
- Photo-reduction can produce more space without reducing content.
- Consistent positioning of response boxes, usually to the right, speeds up completion and also avoids inadvertent omission of responses.
- Choose the font style to maximise legibility.
- Differentiate between instructions and questions. Either lower case and capitals can be used, or responses can be boxed.

The questionnaire should be carefully and clearly laid out. It is usually important to have a covering page, an introductory message or letter. The later should be brief but should cover essential points e.g. letter head, sponsorship, the major use of the research etc. The letter should also inform the respondents about the subject of research and of the fact that the respondent represents a cross section of the population under study. It should tell the respondent what they are expected to do. The letter should motivate the respondents. In the questionnaire one may use bold type words to try and emphasise particular words and instructions.

It is important to think of the problems to be solved by the survey and hence decide on what questions to be asked. The temptation is always to cover too much and ask everything interesting to the researcher. This must be resisted because too many and lengthy questions discourage respondents. The solution to this is to use the variables and their indicators to know about which aspects to ask.

It is important that the researcher must rigorously examine every question and exclude that ones not strictly relevant.

c) Question wording.

i) Leading questions. A leading question is one which, by its content, structure or wording, leads the respondent in the direction of a certain answer. Avoid loaded or leading questions that imply a certain answer. For example, by mentioning one particular item in the question, ‘Do you agree that Colgate toothpaste is the best toothpaste?’ The questions which suggest some of the possible answers and are leading may include ‘You don’t see, do you?’ OR ‘Shouldn’t some thing be done?’

ii) Questions that are insufficiently specific. A common error is to ask a general question when an answer on a specific issue is wanted. For example if one is interested in the costs of FEMA programmes and the quality of the programmes, the general question like ‘Are you satisfied with the FEMA programmes?’ would be unsatisfactory and insufficient. It fails to provide the respondent with the necessary are of reference.

iii) Ambiguous questions. These should be avoided because if they are included, different people will understand the questions differently and in effect will answer differently. Use words and phrases that are unambiguous and familiar to the respondent. For example, ‘dinner’ has a number of different interpretations; use an alternative expression such as ‘evening meal’.

E.g. a question like “is your work made more difficult because you are expecting a baby?’ This question, if asked to all respondents irrespective of whether they are expectant or not, and depending on the respondent might mean “no I am not expecting a baby” or “no my work is not affected by the fact that I am expecting a baby”.

vi) Use simple language. The population being studied should be kept in mind. The aim of question wording is to communicate with the respondent as clearly as possible in their own language. A survey of the members of a particular profession can usefully employ the profession’s technical terms. However technical terms and jargons should be avoided in surveys of the general population.

v)         Embarrassing questions. There are questions about subjects that people don’t want to discuss in public. Respondents are often embarrassed to discuss private matters in public because they may be shy or have low self-esteem. They may also fear to admit to an acceptable behaviour. E.g. questions concerning sexual behavior, frequency of taking birth, frequency of brushing teeth, cheating in exams, e.t.c.

One measure of eliminating the threatening nature of embarrassing question is to express them in a 3^rd party expression.

vi)  Personalised questions. Its usually necessary to decide whether a question should be asked in a personalized form not.

vii)       Presuming questions  . Questions should not presume anything about the respondents i.e. they should not imply that the respondents must have all knowledge or that the respondent engages in the activity about which the research is being under taken. E.g. questions like ‘how did you vote in the last general elections?”

o              Questions involving memory. Most factual questions involve the respondent in recalling information. The degree of success in recalling information accurately will be a basic determinant of the quality of the response.

o              Keep the questions short, simple and to the point; avoid all unnecessary words.

o              Only ask questions that the respondent can answer. Hypothetical questions should be avoided. Avoid calculations and questions that require a lot of memory work, for example, ‘How many people stayed in your hotel last year?’

o              Vacuous words or phrases should be avoided. ‘Generally’, ‘usually’, or ‘normally’ are imprecise terms with various meanings. They should be replaced with quantitative statements, for example, ‘at least once a week’.

o              Questions should only address a single issue. For example, questions like: ‘Do you take annual holidays to Spain?’ should be broken down into two discreet stages, firstly find out if the respondent takes an annual holiday, and then secondly find out if they go to Spain.

o              Do not ask two questions in one by using ‘and’. For example, ‘Did you watch television last night and read a newspaper?’

o              Avoid double negatives. For example, ‘Is it not true that you did not read a newspaper yesterday?’ Respondents may tackle a double negative by switching both negatives and then assuming that the same answer applies. This is not necessarily valid.

o              State units required but do not aim for too high a degree of accuracy. For instance, use an interval rather than an exact figure:

‘How much did you earn last year?’

[  ] Less than £10,000

[  ] Above £10,000 but less than £20,000

- Avoid emotive or embarrassing words – usually connected with race, religion, politics, sex, money.

Length questions

There may be a strong temptation to include any vaguely interesting questions, but you should resist this at all costs. Excessive size can only reduce response rates. If a long questionnaire is necessary, then you must give even more thought to appearance. It is best to leave pages unnumbered; for respondents to flick to the end and see ‘page 27’ can be very disconcerting!

Order of questions

Probably the most crucial stage in questionnaire response is the beginning. Once the respondents have started to complete the questions they will normally finish the task, unless it is very long or difficult. Consequently, you need to select the opening questions with care. Usually the best approach is to ask for biographical details first, as the respondents should know all the answers without much thought. Another benefit is that an easy start provides practice in answering questions.

Once the introduction has been achieved the subsequent order will depend on many considerations. You should be aware of the varying importance of different questions. Essential information should appear early, just in case the questionnaire is not completed. For the same reasons, relatively unimportant questions can be placed towards the end. If questions are likely to provoke the respondent and remain unanswered, these too are best left until the end, in the hope of obtaining answers to everything else.

Coding

If analysis of the results is to be carried out using a statistical package or spreadsheet it is advisable to code non-numerical responses when designing the questionnaire, rather than trying to code the responses when they are returned. An example of coding is:

Male [   ] | Female [   ]
1 | 2

The coded responses (1 or 2) are then used for the analysis.

Interview Method (Ctd...)

Types of questions

A questionnaire may contain either closed (close-ended) questions or open (open-ended) questions or a combination of both.

1) Closed questions (Close-ended/pre-coded questions)

A question is asked and then a number of possible answers are provided for the respondent. The respondent selects the answer which is appropriate. Closed questions are particularly useful in obtaining factual information.

Close-ended pre-coded questions are those where the opinions are presented on a scale and the responded has to tick or circle what they feel is their response of the extent of their opinion. These make analysis of data easier as compared to the analysis of data of open questions.

For example

Gender  Male [  ] Female [  ]

Did you watch television last night?   Yes [  ] No [  ]

Some ‘Yes/No’ questions have a third category ‘Do not know’. Experience shows that as long as this alternative is not mentioned people will make a choice. Also the phrase ‘Do not know’ is ambiguous:

Do you agree with the introduction of the EMU?

Yes [  ] No [  ] Do not know [  ]

What was your main way of traveling to the hotel? Tick one box only.

Car | [ ]
Coach | [ ]
Motor bike | [ ]
Train | [ ]
Other means, please specify |

With such lists you should always include an ‘other’ category, because not all possible responses might have been included in the list of answers.

Sometimes the respondent can select more than one from the list. However, this makes analysis difficult:

Why have you visited the historic house? Tick the relevant answer(s). You may tick as many as you like.

I enjoy visiting historic houses | [  ]
The weather was bad and I could not enjoy outdoor activities | [ ]
I have visited the house before and wished to return | [  ]
Other reason, please specify |

Attitude questions are also examples of closed questions

Frequently questions are asked to find out the respondents’ opinions or attitudes to a given situation. A Likert scale provides a battery of attitude statements. The respondent then says how much they agree or disagree with each one:

Read the following statements and then indicate by a tick whether you strongly agree, agree, disagree or strongly disagree with the statement.

 | Strongly agree | Agree | Disagree | Strongly disagree
My visit has been good value for money |  |  |  |

There are many variations on this type of question. One variation is to have a ‘middle statement’, for example, ‘Neither agree nor disagree’. However, many respondents take this as the easy option. Only having four statements, as above, forces the respondent into making a positive or negative choice. Another variation is to rank the various attitude statements; however, this can cause analysis problems:

Which of these characteristics do you like about your job? Indicate the best three in order, with the best being number 1.

Varied work | [ ]
Good salary | [ ]
Opportunities for promotion | [ ]
Good working conditions | [ ]
High amount of responsibility | [ ]
Friendly colleagues | [ ]

A semantic differential scale attempts to see how strongly an attitude is held by the respondent. With these scales double-ended terms are given to the respondents who are asked to indicate where their attitude lies on the scale between the terms. The response can be indicated by putting a cross in a particular position or circling a number:

Work is: (circle the appropriate number)

Difficult | 1    2   3   4    5   6    7 | Easy
Useless | 1    2    3    4   5   6   7 | Useful
Interesting | 1    2    3    4    5    6   7 | Boring

For summary and analysis purposes, a ‘score’ of 1 to 7 may be allocated to the seven points of the scale, thus quantifying the various degrees of opinion expressed. This procedure has some disadvantages. It is implicitly assumed that two people with the same strength of feeling will mark the same point on the scale. This almost certainly will not be the case. When faced with a semantic differential scale, some people will never, as a matter of principle, use the two end indicators of 1 and 7. Effectively, therefore, they are using a five-point scale. Also scoring the scale 1 to 7 assumes that they represent equidistant points on the continuous spectrum of opinion. This again is probably not true. Nevertheless, within its limitations, the semantic differential can provide a useful way of measuring and summarising subjective opinions.

Other types of questions to determine peoples’ opinions or attitudes are:

Which one/two words best describes...?

Which of the following statements best describes...?

How much do you agree with the following statement...?

2) Open questions (Open-ended questions). In an open question, the respondent is given freedom to decide the aspect, the form, detail and length of the answer. It is the interviewee to record as much of the answer as possible. The respondent is given a chance to write the answer to the extent they want.

An open question such as ‘What are the essential skills a manager should possess?’ should be used as an adjunct to the main theme of the questionnaire and could allow the respondent to elaborate upon an earlier more specific question. Open questions inserted at the end of major sections, or at the end of the questionnaire, can act as safety valves, and possibly offer additional information. However, they should not be used to introduce a section since there is a high risk of influencing later responses. The main problem of open questions is that many different answers have to be summarised and possibly coded.

Sequencing of Questions

A. Positioning of Demographics and Sensitive Questions

- Personal or demographic go at the end of a questionnaire.
- Asking at the beginning may
  - irritate respondents
  - affect willingness finish the survey.
- Demographic filter questions can be asked.
- Sensitive questions likely to embarrass respondents or put them in an awkward position
  - should also be placed near the end of the questionnaire.
  - Especially critical in face-to-face or telephone interviews.
  - May not even be possible in many international markets.
- Simple Easy-to-answer questions
  - Ask as early as possible.
  - Can get the process off to a smooth start.
  - Can pave the way for more difficult questions.

B. Arrangement of Related Questions

- Clustering questions that focus on the same topic is advisable.
- Skipping from topic to topic
  - may confuse respondents
  - break their train of thought
  - cause errors in the data.
- Grouping questions into meaningful clusters can
  - increase respondents' ease in answering
  - reduce the chance of response errors.

C. Funnel and Inverted-Funnel Questions

Funnel Sequence
- move from general to specific questions within a topic.
- begins with a very general question on a topic,
- gradually leads up to a narrowly focused question on the same topic.
- In situations where asking specific questions first can bias the answers to later questions.
Inverted Funnel sequence
- move from specific to general questions within a topic
- similar to aided recall
- When respondents do not have clearly formulated views about a topic
- When respondents need to have a common frame of reference in responding to general questions on the topic

Interview Method (Ctd...)

PRE-TESTING THE QUESTIONNAIRES – pilot survey

Questionnaire design is fraught with difficulties and problems. A number of rewrites will be necessary, together with refinement and rethinks on a regular basis. Do not assume that you will write the questionnaire accurately and perfectly at the first attempt. If poorly designed, you will collect inappropriate or inaccurate data and good analysis cannot then rectify the situation.

To refine the questionnaire, you need to conduct a pilot survey. This is a small-scale trial prior to the main survey that tests all your question planning. Amendments to questions can be made. After making some amendments, the new version would be re-tested. If this re-test produces more changes, another pilot would be undertaken and so on. For example, perhaps responses to open-ended questions become closed; questions which are all answered the same way can be omitted; difficult words replaced, etc.

It is usual to pilot the questionnaires personally so that the respondent can be observed and questioned if necessary. By timing each question, you can identify any questions that appear too difficult, and you can also obtain a reliable estimate of the anticipated completion time for inclusion in the covering letter. The result can also be use to test the coding and analytical procedures to be performed later.

Pretesting the questionnaire enables toe researcher to test for its validity and reliability.

Testing for Questionnaire Reliability and Validity

Reliability

Reliability is the consistency of your measurement, or the degree to which an instrument (Questionnaire) measures the same way each time it is used under the same condition with the same subjects. In short, it is the repeatability of your measurement. A measure is considered reliable if a person's score on the same test given twice is similar. It is important to remember that reliability is not measured, it is estimated.

There are two ways that reliability is usually estimated: test/retest and internal consistency.

1. Test/Retest

Test/retest is the more conservative method to estimate reliability. Simply put, the idea behind test/retest is that you should get the same score on test 1 as you do on test 2. The three main components to this method are as follows:

a.) implement your measurement instrument at two separate times for each subject;

b). compute the correlation between the two separate measurements; and

c) assume there is no change in the underlying condition (or trait you are trying to measure) between test 1 and test 2.

2. Internal Consistency
Internal consistency estimates reliability by grouping questions in a questionnaire that measure the same concept. For example, you could write two sets of three questions that measure the same concept (say class participation) and after collecting the responses, run a correlation between those two groups of three questions to determine if your instrument is reliably measuring that concept.

One common way of computing correlation values among the questions on your instruments is by using Cronbach's Alpha. In short, Cronbach's alpha splits all the questions on your instrument every possible way and computes correlation values for them all (we use a computer program for this part). In the end, your computer output generates one number for Cronbach's alpha - and just like a correlation coefficient, the closer it is to one, the higher the reliability estimate of your instrument. Cronbach's alpha is a less conservative estimate of reliability than test/retest.

The primary difference between test/retest and internal consistency estimates of reliability is that test/retest involves two administrations of the measurement instrument, whereas the internal consistency method involves only one administration of that instrument.

Validity

Validity is the strength of our conclusions, inferences or propositions. More formally, Cook and Campbell (1979) define it as the "best available approximation to the truth or falsity of a given inference, proposition or conclusion." In short, were we right? Let's look at a simple example. Say we are studying the effect of strict attendance policies on class participation. In our case, we saw that class participation did increase after the policy was established. Each type of validity would highlight a different aspect of the relationship between our treatment (strict attendance policy) and our observed outcome (increased class participation).

Types of Validity:

There are four types of validity commonly examined in social research.

a) Conclusion validity asks is there a relationship between the program and the observed outcome? Or, in our example, is there a connection between the attendance policy and the increased participation we saw?

b) Internal Validity asks if there is a relationship between the program and the outcome we saw, is it a causal relationship? For example, did the attendance policy cause class participation to increase?

c) Construct validity is the hardest to understand in my opinion. It asks if there is there a relationship between how I operationalized my concepts in this study to the actual causal relationship I'm trying to study/? Or in our example, did our treatment (attendance policy) reflect the construct of attendance, and did our measured outcome - increased class participation - reflect the construct of participation? Overall, we are trying to generalize our conceptualized treatment and outcomes to broader constructs of the same concepts.

d) External validity refers to our ability to generalize the results of our study to other settings. In our example, could we generalize our results to other classrooms?

Interview Method (Ctd...)

Distribution and return of questionnaires

The questionnaire should be checked for completeness to ensure that all pages are present and that none is blank or illegible. It is usual to supply a prepaid addressed envelope for the return of the questionnaire. You need to explain this in the covering letter and reinforce it at the end of the questionnaire, after the ‘Thank you’.

Finally, many organisations are approached continually for information. Many, as a matter of course, will not respond in a positive way.

Factors affecting the percentage of returned questionnaires

1. Length of the questionnaire.
2. Reputation of the sponsoring agency.
3. Complexity of the questions asked.
4. Relative importance of the study as determined by the potential respondent.
5. Extent to which the respondent believes that his responses are important.
6. Quality and design of the questionnaire.
7. Time of year the questionnaires are sent out.

Forms Of Questionnaires

1.         Closed Questionnaire.

These are questionnaires used when categorized data or answer is required i.e. when the answers or data need to be put into definite classification. In this questionnaire, questions are given answers such that the replies can be found in the alternative answers provided therein. The respondent only ticks the best answer that suits the situation.

2.         Open questionnaire.

These are questionnaires where the respondents are free and are not limited in their replies to a particular question posed to them i.e. they are given a chance to answer and give detailed responses.

3.         Pictorial questionnaires.

These are questionnaires where pictures are introduced in the format of the question.

The aim of such questions is to promote interest in answering the questions. This type of questionnaire is used where social attitudes need to be discussed and information is sought about the pictures. Pictures and cartoons are used and respondents are supposed to fill information about the idea in the cartoon on the picture.

Interview Method (Ctd...)

MAIL QUESTIONNAIRE

Mail questionnaire involves the researcher sending the questionnaire to the respondent by post for filling. Here the researcher does not personally administer the question. The questionnaires are printed and then sent to the respondent either by an agent or through the post office in a well addressed envelop. The respondents fill the questionnaire by themselves.

Advantages of Mail Questionnaire

1.         Cheaper than other methods.

The method has a considerable saving of money as opposed to the self-administered questionnaire.

2.                  Time saving.

Mailed questionnaires can be sent to all respondents simultaneously and most o the replies will be received within a week or specified period of time. However on the other hand, other methods like self-administered questionnaire and interview are questionnaire and interview are performed sequent and they take months to complete

3.      It’s easier to reach people in inaccessible areas when we use the mail questionnaire method. The problem of non- contact when the respondents are not found at home or in any agreed location will also be avoided.

4.      The absence of no interviewer may yield better reply from the respondent especially because there will be no interviewers bias or influence the interviewer or researcher may have facial expressions, expressions in the tone e.t.c. which may bias the respondents.

5.      The questionnaire may be completed at the respondent’s convenience. The respondent may spend more little time on the questionnaire that when in an interview or self-administered type of study. With the mail questionnaire the respondent is free to answer one or two or even more. Furthermore the respondents can have a chance to start answering with the question they like

6.      Personal questions and embracing questions may be may be willingly answered than in the self administered questionnaire

7.      Standard wording in mail questionnaire helps to get comparison or respondent answers by the fact that each respondent is exposed to exactly the same wording.

Disadvantages

1.      Mailed questionnaire can only be used where questions are straightforward and simple to be understood by the respondent.

2.      It has a major draw back due to non-response. There are high rates of non-response in mail questionnaire especially due to lack of interest, no body to motivate them to fill the questionnaire or not getting the questionnaire e.t.c.

3.      It’s not appropriate where a great deal of explanation is required.

4.      The mail questionnaire gives no chance of probing beyond the given answer or clarifying on an ambiguous answer or question i.e. this indicates that there is no flexibility in using the mail questionnaire.

5.      It’s difficult to ensure that the right person completes the questionnaire.

6.      It can give no opportunity of supplementing the data through observation method.

7.      The mail questionnaire can introduce bias in to the respondent if the respondent reads through the questions first before answering i.e. there’s no control over question answering.

8.      Many questions would remain unanswered with no supervision in filling the questionnaire.

9.      There’s no strong control over data of response naïve is completed can damage the study seriously.

Factors Affecting Mail Questionnaire

1.      Sponsorship of the research.

2.      Attractiveness of the questionnaire format

3.      Length of the questionnaire.

4.      Nature of the accompanying letter requesting operation for requesting for responses.

5.      The ease of filling the questionnaire and mailing it back to the researcher.

6.      Type of mailing i.e. hand delivery, DHL, TNT, E-mail etc.

7.      Time when the questionnaire is mailed to the respondents. The researcher should identify an appropriate time depending on the respondent e.g. Holiday for students. It’s necessary for researchers to get the schedule of the respondents to know when they should answer.

8.      Nature of follow up; how many times there is follow up, etc.

Ways Of Improving Response Of Mail Questionnaire

1. Keep the questionnaire short.

2. Make the questionnaire look attractive i.e. neat and clear to the respondents.

3. Send an envelope with a stamp and the return address well written to the respondent. This will make it easy for the respondent to answer and return the questionnaire. Instruction for returning should also be given.

4. Send a reminder to the respondent because sometimes they may relax or even forget.

5. Use covering letters to accompany the questionnaire and should be in good language.

6. Sometimes a payment or gift should be given as an incentive to complete the questionnaire.

7. The researcher can have multiple collection points where respondents can drop filled questionnaires.

Sample Questionnaire

Computer self efficacy.

Section B: Computer anxiety.

9. I do not fear using computers.

Strongly Agree | Agree | Not sure | Disagree | Strongly Disagree

10. I don’t feel embarrassed when performing tasks using a computer.

Strongly Agree | Agree | Not sure | Disagree | Strongly Disagree

11. Use of computers to perform my tasks does not disappoint me.

Strongly Agree | Agree | Not sure | Disagree | Strongly Disagree

Section C: Computer playfulness

12. I can easily interact with and use computers to record financial transactions.

Strongly Agree | Agree | Not sure | Disagree | Strongly Disagree

13.  When I use computer systems, I do not feel intimidated and stressed.

Strongly Agree | Agree | Not sure | Disagree | Strongly Disagree

Section D: Effort expectancy

14. I use computer systems with ease.

Strongly Agree | Agree | Not sure | Disagree | Strongly Disagree

15. When I use computer systems to record financial transactions, I expect better results or outcomes.

Strongly Agree | Agree | Not sure | Disagree | Strongly Disagree

Section E: Users attitude

16. I have a positive attitude towards use of computerized systems.

Strongly Agree | Agree | Not sure | Disagree | Strongly Disagree

Section F: Conceptualization of computer knowledge

17.  Am computer literate and familiar with use of software packages to perform my daily tasks.

Strongly Agree | Agree | Not sure | Disagree | Strongly Disagree

Section G: Computerized accounting systems

18. What kind of software do you use in your department?          IFMS                 Quick books

      Pastel          None of the above

19. The software am using gives me the best results.

Strongly Agree | Agree | Not sure | Disagree | Strongly Disagree

Adoption of Computerized accounting systems

Section I: Automating the accounting transactions

20. The financial records of the Electoral Commission can easily be accessed by management and other external users since they are all computerized.

Strongly Agree | Agree | Not sure | Disagree | Strongly Disagree

Section J: Perceived usefulness of computerized systems

21. I believe that use of computerized accounting systems improves my work performance.

Strongly Agree | Agree | Not sure | Disagree | Strongly Disagree

22. I find it easy to record and present financial data using computerized accounting systems.

Strongly Agree | Agree | Not sure | Disagree | Strongly Disagree

Section K: Methods used to record financial information

23. All cash books in the Electoral Commission are computer-based.

Strongly Agree | Agree | Not sure | Disagree | Strongly Disagree

24. All the ledgers in the Electoral Commission are computerized.

Strongly Agree | Agree | Not sure | Disagree | Strongly Disagree

25. The bin cards in the stores department are computerized.

Strongly Agree | Agree | Not sure | Disagree | Strongly Disagree

26. All invoices of the Electoral Commission are computer-based.

Strongly Agree | Agree | Not sure | Disagree | Strongly Disagree

Section L: The relationship between computer self efficiency and adoption of computerized accounting systems.

27. Computer self efficacy affects the level of adoption of computerized accounting systems in Government organizations.

Strongly Agree | Agree | Not sure | Disagree | Strongly Disagree

28. Which other factors do you think affect the level of adoption of computerized accounting systems in Government organizations apart from computer self efficacy?

________________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________

29. Suggest possible measures that can be used by the Electoral Commission to improve the level of adoption of computerized accounting systems.

________________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________

Thank you

God Bless You.

Interview Method (Ctd...)

B) DIRECT INTERVIEW AS A SURVEY METHOD

This method has become increasingly popular in research. Here the interviewer approaches the respondent and puts questions directly to the respondent. The researcher then records the replies. The interviewer should have an interview guide which helps in completing the work to be done. However, sometimes the interviewer may do without the interview guide. Interview is a face-to-face impersonal situation in which the interviewer asks the respondent questions designed to obtain answers relevant to the research problem.

General Characteristics of interviews

1.   The interview is done to collect information about unknown facts through face to face contact. It is with the help of an interview that attempt is made to know the inner feelings of the respondent.

2.   In the interview both the researcher and the respondent get to know each other so that they understand each other’s research needs and requirements. A good interview aims at not wasting time in finalizing facts that are already known.

3.   The researcher tries to get information from the respondent which other methods usually fail to obtain.

4.   The interview also aims at verification of new ideas which the interviewer might have about certain people.

5.   Interview method helps to collect additional information or views of different people about different problems in different situations. This also helps to find out the reactions of the people about different situations.

6.   The interview method also aims at providing an opportunity to observe things from very close quarters. This method and the observation method can provide such opportunity to observe such situations which the questionnaire method fails to do

Advantages Of The Interview Method

1.   High response rate/ participation since the interviewer personally goes to the field, meets the people and collects information from them. The respondents become motivated to answer questions since hey see the interviewer physically.

2.   This method helps to collect information from incapable people. E.g. there are people who are incapable of giving information unless or until they are assisted and motivated e.g. children, illiterate, etc, with the help of the interview it becomes possible to collect information from such people and hence benefit from their view point.

3.   It helps to get information from those that are reluctant to reply. The reluctance can be because such people consider themselves either too important to give information or they feel it’s a wastage of time to give information or they feel they have no information to give or they are easily dominated by others. When the interviewer approaches them, it becomes possible to get information even from them.

4.   In the interview method, there is a possibility to go deeper in the conversation. When the interviewer and interviewee are face to face with each other, it becomes possible to discuss in detail. A trained, qualified and experienced interviewer can study much deeper problems when face to face.

5.   Possibility to cross check. The interviewer will not always be satisfied with merely interviewing the interviewee. The interviewer will frequently engage in conversation with the interviewee in such a way as to cross check whether the information being given is correct.

6.   Possibility of flexibility. It could be possible that the interviewee may not understand the questions and so it becomes neccessary for the interviewer to rephrase a question and repeat it laying particular emphasis on the points on which information is being sought.

7.   Emotions and fears can be appreciated in the interview method while discussing a problem. The respondent and the interviewer may become emotional and excited at times. Furthermore, the respondent may feel hesitant to reply due to inherent feelings or fears in his or her mind. Sometimes it may even be an exaggeration of some situation. The interview method provides an opportunity to appreciate these situations and the interviewer may be able to differentiate on the spot between facts and fiction on a given piece of information.

8.      It is possible to obtain information partaining unknown events and the point of view of the respondent.. There are many issues that are not known to the people like the interviewer other than those known by the people being interviewed. The interview method makes such people being interviewed provide such unknown information and their viewpoint about that particular situation. This method may ordinarily provide this type of information

9.       Reliability of information and respondent. Since the person concerned with the research gets involved in the interviewing and recording the viewpoint of the respondents, the information collected is taken to be more reliable.

It is even more reliable because the interviewer cross-checks the information being supplied and can even read the emotions, feelings and behaviours of the respondents. The researcher is also sure of the respondents.

Disadvantages of the interview method

- The method is costly. This is because it involves a lot of travelling from one respondent to another.
- The method is time consuming since each respondent requires time to be interviewed. Further more it may not also be easy to interview many people and be satisfied in one setting. It may require various settings, which really consume time.
- The possibility of changing meaning. Each study is conducted with a certain meaning and purpose in which there is emphasis on certain aspects. It is important not to change such words and their meanings. The weakness of the interview method is that there is a possibility of changing the emphasis and mis-interpreting the meanings.
- Too much reliance on memory i.e the interviewer is expected to do many things at once and at the same time. E.g. the interviewer must keep the interviewee engaged in the discussion. The interviewer should provide motivation for the respondent to give information. The interviewer  must closely observe the respondent, must remember what is being said and must be able to record it.. This is really a difficult task and the interview may get many distortions.
- Too much reliance on the individual. The main figure in the interview method is the respondent who supplies information. The respondent is relied on to give his/her view point to give the impressions, feelings etc on which to build the research.
- The difficulty in persuading the interviewee especially when he/she feels threatened and unsafe to give information. There is therefore need to persuade and motivate the interviewee.
- The problem of trained interviewers. It may be difficult to find trained interviewers. The success of the interview method depends on mainly how to interviews are conducted and this also depends on the training of the interviewer.  Furthermore, training of the interviewer is done at a cost and therefore it may become difficult to find a good, competent and trained interviewer.
- The problem of emotions. The respondent may be too excited or threatened to give information. The given information may not be improper and may not be reliable. The interviewer might give too much excitement to the respondent and make the respondents too emotional that instead of giving correct information he/she may give biased information. It is therefore necessary that emotion be controlled and the interviewer should take lead of the control.

Types Of Interview

1. Structured/standardised/formal interview:

In this type of interview, the questions and their sequence are determined in advance. The interviewer merely proceeds systematically through the list of questions, noting the replies given by the respondent. He/she is not free to adapt his/her questions to a specific situation or to change their wordings or to change their sequence or to ask other questions.

Characteristics of Structured interviews

- Based on a carefully worded interview schedule.
- Frequently require short answers with the answers being ticked off.
- Useful when there are a lot of questions which are not particularly contentious or thought provoking.
- Respondent may become irritated by having to give over-simplified answers.

Advantages of Structured interviews

1. They enable other investigators to duplicate the interview situation and to verify the results of previous interviews.

2. They are more economical because forcing the interviewer to move on a fixed track results into a wider coverage of respondents at the same time.

3. They demand less skills of the interviewer as opposed to the unstructured type.

4. They force the respondent to answers spontaneously without  too much meditation  and this acts as a check on fabrication.

Disadvantages of Structured Interview

1. Permitting little flexibility to the interviewer prevents him/her form going into depth and exploring other avenues of information which may appear to him/her as fruitful.

2. It may lead to the interviewer not exploring other methods of data collection since it seems straight forward.

2. Unstructured/unstandardised/informal interview

In this type of interview, the interviewer is free to develop each situation in whatever ways he/she deems appropriate for the purpose at hand. He/she can be flexible in adapting his/her approach to whatever appears to be most fruitful for a given respondent. He/she may change the general line of questioning if important results are not forthcoming or he/she may alter the wording of the questions so as to achieve some equivalence in meaning for different kinds of respondents. He/she may also omit certain questions totally or replace them with others, or add others.

This also called an in-depth interview. The interviewer begins by asking a general question. The interviewer then encourages the respondent to talk freely. The interviewer uses an unstructured format, the subsequent direction of the interview being determined by the respondent’s initial reply. The interviewer then probes for elaboration – ‘Why do you say that?’ or, ‘That’s interesting, tell me more’ or, ‘Would you like to add anything else?’ being typical probes.

Advantages of Unstructured interview

1. A skilled interviewer is able to develop new ideas about the phenomena under investigation. He/she is able to explore many new ideas and can go beyond the original formulation of the problem.

2. It leaves a favorable impression on the interviewee because, by giving an opportunity to the interviewee to speak freely, it relieves his/her tensions and clarifies his/her thinking.

Disadvantages/Demerits of Unstructured interviewed

1. The collection of data by this method is very slow. Only a small number of interviews can be completed in a given period.

2.Analysis of all sorts of responses is difficult and time consuming.

3. This type of interview needs a very high level of interviewing quality. The greater the discretion allowed to the interviewer, the more necessary is a high level of competence.

4. This type of interview cannot be replicated and its results cannot be generalised for large populations.

3. Semi-structured/Semi-standardised Interview

The interview is focused by asking certain questions but with scope for the respondent to express him or herself at length. The interviewer asks a number of specific major questions but he is also free to probe beyond the answers to these questions. The interviewer, although bound by a definite framework of topics to be covered about each responded, is more free to frame his/her questions and to decide their sequence according to his/her understanding of the situation.

The respondents in this type of interview are always persons who are known to possess the experience of the subject matter under study.

Preparation for the interview

The following section is a step-by-step guide to conducting an interview. You should remember that all situations are different and therefore you may need refinements to the approach.

Planning an interview:

- List the areas in which you require information.
- Decide on type of interview.
- Transform areas into actual questions.
- Try them out on a friend, relative or colleague.
- Make an appointment with respondent(s) – discussing details of why and how long.
- Try and fix a venue and time when you will not be disturbed.
- It is necessary to understand the subject in the research the interviewer therefore should deeply  study the research problem to the prepared to face the interviewee
- Preparation of interview guide. Before the interviewer starts on the work, the interviewer should properly prepare an interview guide. This is a brief document which contains important key questions to be put to the respondents. It may also include important topics of concern. It may also have definitions of key issues to be explained. The main purpose of the interview guide is to help the interviewer keep track of the purpose of the study.
- Selection of interviewees or respondents. It is important to consider which respondents to five you the necessary information requires. You need to establish who to ask which questions. This should be done bearing in mind the time limit. The financial limit, time limit and the limit of other resources you may require in the research.
- The interviewer should find a sample which will be quite representative  of the population both in nature and character.
- Appointment of interviewer. It is important to appoint interviewers with proven abilities i.e. the who  can do the job very well. The interviewers need to be given assurance as to how best the information will be used so as to prove to them the worth of their effete.
- Proper training; As you prepare for the interview. Before the interview sets off, the interviewer should be properly trained in better methods of interviewing they should be trained on  information about the  respondents, who are they? Etc information about the areas, customer, culture and behaviour of the people. The interviewer needs to be training above the sufficient background of the study  and may be the agency in carrying out the study.

Conducting an interview:

- Personally | – | arrive on time, be smart, dress appropriately, smile, be courteus, display good manners find a balance between friendliness and objectivity.
- At the start | – | introduce yourself, re-confirm the purpose and assure confidentiality – if relevant, specify what will happen to the data.
- The questions | – | speak slowly in a soft yet audible tone of voice, control your body language, know the questions and topic, and ask all the questions.
- Responses | – | record as you go on question. Writing verbatim it good but slow and time-consuming. However, summarise. You can also use a recorder or tape. Agree beforehand with the interviewee.Consider effect on respondent’s answers. Use proper equipment in good working order, have sufficient tapes and batteries. Get a place with minimum or no background noise.
- At the end | – | ask if the respondent would like to give further details about anything or any questions about the research. Thank them.

- Process of the interview

We need to fix the time. The interviewee and the interviewer should agree on time that is more convenient to the interviewee. This will contribute on the success of the interview

Fixing of the place where the interview should take place. It is always most desirable that some place should be chosen which is convenient to both the interviewee and the interviewer.  The interviewee should be given a chance to have an input on the convenient place.

- Proper introduction

Before, the interview starts it is important to have good introduction e.g. the interviewee may carry a letter of introduction which may be personal letter from the oganiser of the study. Such a letter should establish the interviewers credential and some time which would have been used for introduction. The letter should also give confidence to the interviewee

- Co-operation of the community leaders

In every community there are usually local leaders. Therese may be political, cultural ,social, religious etc. people of the community also require great regard and respect for them. The interviewer therefore should note be among them. It is important to approach the community leaders and inform them of that is taking place and the importance of the research.

- You need to psychologically be aware of how to respond  to the interviewee i.e. give enough time to time respondent to respond
- Consult the respondents if they mind when the interviewer takes notes or even  tape record or photograph
- How to dress
- It is necessary to understand you respondent and dress accordingly you should build confidence with respondents.
- How  to control the interview

This should be done tactfully. The interviewee should not feel exploited. Ask the respondent if there is any thing relevant. Leave the respondent in a state when they feel they want to  talk to you.

Interview Method (Ctd...)

C) TELEPHONE SURVEY

This is where the research is carried out and information is collected over the phone i.e.  the interview is done on phone. It could be a fixed phone or a mobile phone.

Advantages of telephone survey

1.      The telephone survey method is effective and takes a shorter time.

2.      The method is economical because it does not involve a lot of movements from one place to another.

3.      It is possible to reach special populations of people who have telephones e.g. professionals like lawyers, doctors, lecturers, accountants etc

4.      The unreachable or not easily approachable people can easily be contacted on the telephone

5.      Since the interviewer is not in face to face contact with the respondents, they can get a chance of asking questions on topics that may be emotional, embarrassing etc.

6.      Telephone conversations maintain privacy of things talked about.

7.   It helps to ensure effective control i.e. a telephone interview can be controlled to a desired degree. This is because the little time on phone requires responses to be uniform and in line with the questions asked.

8.      Spontaneous response.

9.      Help can be given to the respondent.

10.  The interviewer can record answers using any electronic recording device

Limitations Of Telephone Survey

1.      The respondents are usually not a complete population i.e. some may not have telephones

2.      The researcher may also be limited because of the unlisted telephone numbers i.e. the people you may rely on may be outside the sample

3.      Where there is need to use visual aid like product samples, presentations, etc. telephone survey method would be inadequate.

4.      The interview period or length is limited. The people are not very free to discuss questions on phone

5.      The comments and answers given tend to be too short

6.      There is absence of observational material which may be possible in a personal interview.

7.      Often connected with selling. So someone who is not interested in buying an item may thing that it is a salesperson calling.

8.    A Questionnaire is required although some people may ignore it.

9.      Not everyone has a telephone.

10.  Repeat calls are inevitable – average 2.5 calls to get someone.

11.  Time is wasted in case the respondent engages in giving lengthy answers or talk that is not connected to the interview.

12.  Straightforward questions are required which are sometimes difficult to phrase. In attempting to be straightforward, the interviewer may either distort the question or appear rude to the respondent.

13.  Respondent has little time to think.

14.  Can cause irritation.

15.  Strict telephone manners are required which make it difficult for the interviewer to decide what to speak and the tone to use with someone they do not see.

17.  Question of authority. It is sometimes difficult for the interviewer to maintain calm and patience as the interview progresses. At one point, the interviewer may be tempted to remind the respondent the he/she has the authority to ask questions.

Getting started

- Locate the respondent:
  - Repeat calls may be necessary especially if you are trying to contact people in organisations where you may have to go through secretaries.
  - You may not know an individual’s name or title – so there is the possibility of interviewing the wrong person.
  - You can send an advance letter informing the respondent that you will be telephoning. This can explain the purpose of the research.
- Getting them to agree to take part:
  - You need to state concisely the purpose of the call – scripted and similar to the introductory letter of a postal questionnaire.
  - Respondents will normally listen to this introduction before they decide to co-operate or refuse.
  - When contact is made respondents may have questions or raise objections about why they could not participate. You should be prepared for these.

Ensuring quality

- Quality of questionnaire – follows the principles of questionnaire design. However, it must be easy to move through as you cannot have long silences on the telephone.
- Ability of interviewer – follows the principles of face-to-face interviewing.

Smooth implementation

- Interview schedule – each interview schedule should have a cover page with number, name and address. The cover sheet should make provision to record which call it is, the date and time, the interviewer, the outcome of the call and space to note down specific times at which a call-back has been arranged. Space should be provided to record the final outcome of the call – was an interview refused, contact never made, number disconnected, etc.
- Procedure for call-backs – a system for call-backs needs to be implemented. Interview schedules should be sorted according to their status: weekday call-back, evening call-back, weekend call-back, specific time call-back.

Interview Method (Ctd...)

Comparison of postal, telephone and personal interview surveys

The table below compares the three common methods of postal, telephone and interview surveys – it might help you to decide which one to use.

 | Postal survey | Telephone survey | Personal interview
Cost (assuming a good response rate) | Often lowest | Usually in-between | Usually highest
Ability to probe | No personal contact or observation | Some chance for gathering additional data through elaboration on questions, but no personal observation | Greatest opportunity for observation, building rapport, and additional probing
Respondent ability to complete at own convenience | Yes | Perhaps, but usually no | Perhaps, if interview time is prearranged with respondent
Interview bias | No chance | Some, perhaps due to voice inflection | Greatest chance
Ability to decide who actually responds to the questions | Least | Some | Greatest
Impersonality | Greatest | Some due to lack of face-to-face contact | Least
Complex questions | Least suitable | Somewhat suitable | More suitable
Visual aids | Little opportunity | No opportunity | Greatest opportunity
Potential negative respondent reaction | ‘Junk mail’ | ‘Junk calls’ | Invasion of privacy
Interviewer control over interview environment | Least | Some in selection of time to call | Greatest
Time lag between soliciting and receiving response | Greatest | Least | May be considerable if a large area involved
Suitable types of questions | Simple, mostly dichotomous (yes/no) and multiple choice | Some opportunity for open-ended questions especially if interview is recorded | Greatest opportunity for open-ended questions
Requirement for technical skills in conducting interview | Least | Medium | Greatest
Response rate | Low | Usually high | High

Table: Comparison of the three common methods of surveys

Interview Method (Ctd...)

D) COMPUTER INTERVIEW AND ONLINE QUESTIONNAIRES

 This is where questions are generated through a computer and given to a respondent through windows. Pop-up windows with some few questions are provided and the responses are kept in a database. The computer may be stand-alone (not on a network) or may be connected to a network hence Online questionnaires. Online questionnaires could be distributed via email or designed as web-based surveys which are reached via a link or pop-up automatically when a user clicks on a given page.

It applies mainly where social cues/ non verbal signals of the interviewee are not important information sources for the interviewer (of course dependent on the research problem). Both the interviewer and the interviewee must be competent enough in type writing and using (and have access to) computers.

Advantages

a) It is cheap

b) It enables one to access people on sites which have closed or limited access (such as hospitals religious communities, prisons, the military, and cults);

c) Standardisation of the interview situation is not important;

d) It ensures anonymity.

e) Using computers helps to alleviate time-consuming and monotonous tasks of cutting, pasting and retrieval of field notes and/or interview transcripts.

f) Computers are a useful aid to those who have to work to tight deadlines.

g) Programs can cope with both multiple codes and over-lapping codes which would be very difficult for the researcher to cope with without the aid of a computer.

h) Data analysis and presentation is quick and easy since data is already in electronic format.

i) They can be sent out relatively swiftly and turnaround can be relatively short

j)        users get time to consider responses

k)      Responses can be pre-coded eliminating transcript errors

l)        Guidance and/or software is widely available where the respondent can refer in case they cannot understand how to fill the questionnaire.

Disadvantages

a) In focus groups the group moves through a different sequence of events which is important in the analysis but which cannot be recognised by a computer.

b) Programs cannot understand the meaning of text.

c) Software can only support the intellectual processes of the researcher – they cannot be a substitute for these processes.

d) Participants can change their opinions and contradict themselves during an interview. A computer will not recognise this.

e) The software might be beyond an individual’s budget.

f) User-error can lead to undetected mistakes or misleading results.

g) Using computers can lead to an over-emphasis on mechanical procedures. Respondents  and users may experience technical problems which may delay the return of responses.

h) Social cues/ non verbal signals of the interviewee are not considered

i) With networking and advancement in technology, anonymity is no longer possible since a computer can be traced.

j) Sometimes the interviewee may not be competent enough in typewriting and using (and have access to) computers. Those who are less confident users of electronic services may be less willing to complete an online questionnaire

k) There is a huge time difference in case  the  interviewer and interviewee live in different parts of the world separated by several time zones, and synchronous interviewing means for one party (interviewer or interviewee) doing the interview at awkward hours say deep in the night.

l) Online questionnaires can yield low response rates since the respondents may not fill them while others may receive them but may fail to submit the due to network problems and yet others may fail to access them.

m) Unintended participants may respond by alert from colleague/friend. This arises when very many people respond to the extent that the data got is too much for the researcher to handle.

n)      People may respond more than once leading to many questionnaires submitted but from few respondents who fill many times.

o)      Some surveys may be not deliverable online because of the nature of the questions, the issues discussed, the responses expected and location of either the researcher or respondents.

Interview Method (Ctd...)

E) FOCUS GROUP DISCUSSIONS/ INTERVIEWS

A focus group discussion is an interview conducted by a trained moderator in a non-structured and natural manner with a small group of respondents. It involves gathering a group of individuals who are familiar with the situation and discussing with them already prepared topics so as to get their attitudes. A focus group involves encouraging an invited group of participants to share their thoughts, feelings, attitudes and ideas on a certain subject.

The moderator leads the discussion. The main purpose of focus groups is to gain insights by listening to a group of people from the appropriate target population talk about specific issues of interest.

Advantages

a) Good for getting rich data in the participants' own words and developing deeper insights. It helps to explore a topic in depth through group discussion, e.g., about reactions to an experience or suggestion, understanding common complaints, etc.

b) Data is quick, cheap and relatively easy to assemble. One can quickly and reliably get common impressions. It can also be an efficient way of getting a wide range and depth of information in a short time.

c) People are able to build on one another's responses and come up with ideas they might not have thought of in a 1-on-1 interview. A "snowballing" effect can occur, causing the ideas of individual members of the group to be passed around the group, gathering both momentum and detail.

d) Good for obtaining data from children and/or people with low levels of literacy.

e) Provides an opportunity to involve people in data analysis (e.g. "Out of the issues we have talked about, which ones are most important to you?")

f) Participants can act as checks and balances on one another - identifying factual errors or extreme views.

g) Focus group interviews are generally more interesting to the respondent than individual interviews. As a result, answers are likely to be longer and more revealing.

h) As the questions of the moderator are directed at a group rather than individuals, the degree of spontaneity of resultant answers is often greater in a focus group interview.

Disadvantages/ limitations

a) The responses of each participant are not independent. Results could be biased because the people in the group may just agree with other colleagues in the same group instead of giving their own opinion.

b) A few dominant focus group members can dominate the discussion and skew the session.

c) Focus groups require a skilled and experienced moderator

d) The data which results from a focus group requires skill and experience to analyse

e) It costs more money.

f) Structuring a random sample is a complicated task. The responses of the participants in the interview are likely to be different from the responses of those that did not participate. Therefore, non-response can be a serious problem.

g) The moderator can introduce significant biases into the proceedings, should she/he fail to ask certain questions or delve deeply into specific areas.

h) Respondents who are shy or lack self-confidence may not disclose information they consider personal and confidential. This will affect the result of the study.

How to plan and prepare for the focus group interiview

a)      Invite around 6 to 8 people to participate for a session to last about an hour.

b)      Then, prepare an agenda/ interview guide including a list of the top-level issues to be tackled (if appropriate).

c)      Prepare an introduction script explaining the purpose of the day and how the day will be run. This can include issues of consent and discussion regulations (if relevant).

d)     Be sure to always use a quiet room with few distractions and arrange people in a circle (possibly around a table).

Running/conducting a focus group interview

1. If appropriate, ask the participants to introduce themselves and/or wear name tags. Most importantly, all questions you ask should be open and neutral. It's also important for the moderator to be aware of participants' energy and concentration levels and provide short breaks if necessary. The moderator should encourage free-flowing discussion around the relevant issue(s).

2. Start with an issue people have strong feelings about and are familiar with but that issue must be related to the topic.

3. Phrase issues in a language and terms respondents are be familiar with

4. Let participants know their contributions are valuable through what you say, your body language, taking notes, etc. To facilitate useful and free-flowing discussion during the focus group discussion, follow some of the following tips:

      a)      Ask participants to think about an issue for a few minutes and write down their ideas

      b)      Ask each participant to read and elaborate on one of their responses

      c)      Note the responses in a note book, on a paper, flipchart or whiteboard

     d)     Once everyone has given a response, participants will be asked for a second or third response, until all of their answers have been noted

    e)      These responses can then be discussed

5. It may be necessary for the moderator to step in as the discussion progresses so as to keep the session on-track.

6. Disagreements and debates are useful when they lead to new and interesting ideas, but have to be managed carefully

7. Issues of power and privacy need to be managed sensitively in case some of the participants have authority or are opinion leaders.

8. Focus groups should end with the moderator winding-up the session by stressing all that has been achieved and casting it in a positive light.

For more on interviewing read

http://www.comp.dit.ie/dgordon/Podcasts/Interviews/chap15.pdf