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Course: PEBL 101: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY & DESIGN FOR BUSINESS > Section: UNIT 5b: DATA COLLECTION (CTD…)

Unit 5b Learing Outcomes

Indicative Content

Methods of data collection (Experiments, Projective Technique, Focus group discussions), Tools of data collection

Intended Learning Outcomes for Unit 5b:

By the end of Unit 5b, you will be able to;

1. apply appropriate data collection methods depending on the research problem, type of data required and the target population
2. design data collection instruments or tools

Unit 5b E-tivities

Outcome(s) addressed: Unit 5b addresses Module Learning Outcomes 2, 3 & 4.

Purpose: After a data collection method has been chosen, it is important that a tool is designed to collect the data using that method. This section will enable you learn more data collection methods. You will also learn how to design appropriate data collection tools.  Each of you will share different knowledge and experience on data collection tools.

Over to you: In this Unit, you will search, read and describe the different data collection tools. You will apply this knowledge in building yet another part of the concept paper. The unit introduces you to concepts vital for completing Units 8. There you go!

Preparatory research: In order to learn more data collection methods and design data collection instruments;

1. Read minilecutre on data collection methods here.
2. Read minilecture on data collection instruments/tools here.
3. Read about data collection on pages 236 – 262 of Research Methods for Business by Sekarani (2003) available here.

E-tivity 5.3: One of the most widely used tool in research is a questionnaire. Access the sample questionnaire here. Using principles of questionnaire design, write a summary of 200-300 words commenting on the extent to which that questionnaire satisfies the principles. This should be in your group discussion forum under the discussion topic ‘E-tivity 5.3’. Comment on other people’s observations and improve on your own.

E-tivity 5.4: In the group discussion forum, create another new discussion topic in your group forum titled ‘E-tivity 5.4’. Under it, discuss the types of data, sources of data, data collection methods and data collection tools that are suitable for the concept paper that you are developing. Design a questionnaire for the research problem you identified in unit 2. Group members should discuss and agree on the most suitable answers. Select a weaver for this section who should summarise the final solution for E-tivity 5.2 and post it under the discussion topic titled ‘Concept Paper’ that you created under E-tivity 2.1 by 24^th March 2019.

Link to other Units: Unit 5b links to Units 1, 2, 4, 6, 7 & 8.

Anticipated time required for Unit 5b part one activities: 5 hours

Deadlines for Unit 5b activities:

E-tivity 5.3: Summary of extent to which that questionnaire satisfies the principles: 26^th March 2019.

E-tivity 5.4: Identifying the types of data, sources of data, data collection methods and data collection tools that are suitable for the concept paper and designing a questionnaire: 31^st March 2019.

2. OBSERVATION METHOD OF DATA COLLECTION

It involves watching and noting objects, people, events, settings in order to draw relevant data for the study.

To observe means to examine an object, or an individual, or group of people, or an event with all of the senses.  Recording of observations may take many forms, from simple and casual to exact and sophisticated.  For example, an observer may observe an event and then complete a checklist on whether or not key behaviours occurred.  Or the observer may write notes on everything that happens in his or her presence.  More sophisticated recording may involve audio-visual devices.

Characteristics and features of observation

1. It is an eye affair

In observation, maximum stress is on the eye. The observer goes to the field with a clear idea as to what he/she is going to observe. Thus he/she is expected to see everything very closely and carefully. The observer must not depend on hear say. He/she must ensure that there is nothing which escapes his/her eyes. The observation depends on the eyes of the investigator and he must not be destructed with what others say. It is noteworthy that the first things you see will be most memorable. Psychologists call this the Primacy effect. Your initial impressions of a scene or person can have a distorting effect on later judgments. Stick around long enough to get over these.

2. Definite aim

Observation without aim is purposeless and meaningless. It is essential that the aim of observation should be clearly determined before going to the field. The observer could find some other new things to observe during the course of observation. However no observer should believe that once in the field he/she will decide on spot what is to be observed and what is not to be observed.

3. Planning

The observer should go to the field with a proper plan. Where necessary, the observer should take the necessary equipment and instruments to use.

4. Noting down questions/findings

When observing, observations/things should be noted down immediately before one forgets or before doubts about the facts begin to arise.

5. It’s a direct method of study

This is because the investigator is personally required to go to the field and also personally observe the situation and objects with his/her own eyes. There is a direct communication between the eye and the object being observed. It is noteworthy that your presence will influence on events. When you observe, you are a part of the situation, but you are not normally there.  What people say and do in your presence, therefore, may be different from what they would normally say or do.  For instance, if a classroom teacher knows you are interested in student engagement in mathematics she may be more likely to teach toward engagement when you are present than she normally would. You will have an emotional response to the person or people you are observing. If your initial response is to like or dislike a manager you are observing, you will be inclined to judge all other aspects of that person's performance either positively or negatively. So, for instance, a manager who is caring is perceived to also be effective in influencing employees to achieve organisational goals. Don't fall for that inference. Sometimes people you hate are actually pretty good at what they do and clients may like them too.

6. Mainly primary data is collected

The method is involved in collection of primary data. The observer collects data which he/she feels is relevant to the study. The data collected is the only source of information of a study of this type and no record or question of secondary data arises at this time.

7. Direct cause-effect relationship

The observer observes the cause of an object and also its effects on the situation. This makes the whole study useful and purposeful. It helps in establishing relationships between variables which is useful in many business problems.

8. The researcher is likely to exaggerate the importance of unique events

Often observers are impressed with particular moments they observe-- employee insights, perhaps, or clever managers’ moves. These moments are special, and they are real, but they may not be typical or representative of what normally occurs in that organisation.

9. The observer should not assume that the events they observe are similar to those they don't see

An observer may observe, say, a management meeting or staff meetings and assume that what he/she sees typifies how things work throughout the day. Or he/she may schedule all his/her observations on Monday, not realizing that employees behave differently on Mondays than they do on other days of the week. To be sure the interpretation of events makes sense, he/she needs to sample events across different times, subjects, organisations, department, managers, or whatever dimensions are relevant to your study.

10. The observer may succumb to confirmation bias

One of the most difficult aspects of human nature is that we tend to seek only evidence that confirms our own prior ideas. This is called a confirmation bias. The secret to good observational research is to seek out counter-examples. If you expect, for instance, managers to take an authoritative behavior, make an effort to find instances that defy this expectation, so that you can learn more about when they do and when they don't behave in certain ways. If you expect them to represent a subject with a particular bias, search for examples of an opposing bias.

11. It is possible that the observer will always be missing something important

Understanding organisational or situational dynamics requires you to follow the main story line. However, it is easy to become distracted and miss important cues. For instance, you may be focusing on one employee while the manager is focusing on another one. You are likely to misconstrue the manager's behavior or intentions. Or events may happen very rapidly, and you will miss an important detail.

12. The observer will change their own focus over time

As you spend more time observing, you will begin to see things differently than you did at first. You may attend less to events that you consider routine, and more to unusual events. Or you may become interested in new questions. When this happens you will discover that your early observation notes are inconsistent with your later notes, making it difficult for you to treat them equally during analysis. Plan on such changes. Devise a method for tracking your own thinking. One strategy frequently used is to write memos to yourself, or to write new hypotheses regularly. Be sure to date these, because later, when you try to analyze your data, you may realize that all the notes you took before a certain revelation won't contain evidence about that idea because you hadn't thought to look for evidence about that yet. Or, conversely, perhaps those earlier notes will provide a test for a hypothesis that you didn't think of until later on.

Observation Method Ctd..

Key Steps in Conducting Structured Observations / How to plan for observations?

1. Determine the focus.

Think about the evaluation question(s) you want to answer through observation and select a few areas of focus for your data collection. For example, you may want to know how well an on-job-training is being implemented in a bank. Your focus areas might be Interactions between trainees and mentors, and mentors’ knowledge, skills, and behaviors.

2. Design a system for data collection.

Once you have focused your evaluation, think about the specific items for which you want to collect data and then determine how you will collect the information you need. There are three primary ways of collecting observation data. These three methods can be combined to meet your data collection needs. They include;

a) Recording sheets and checklists which are the most standardized way of collecting observation data and include both preset questions and responses. These forms are typically used for collecting data that can be easily described in advance. E.g., topics that might be covered durung an employee mentoring session.

b) Observation guides which list the interactions, processes, or behaviors to be observed with space to record open-ended narrative data.

c) Field notes which are the least standardized way of collecting observation data and do not

include preset questions or responses. Field notes are open-ended narrative data that can be written or dictated onto a tape recorder.

3. Select the sites.

Select an adequate number of sites to help ensure they are representative of the larger population and will provide an understanding of the situation you are observing.

4. Select the observers.

You may choose to be the only observer or you may want to include others in conducting observations. Stakeholders, other professional staff members, interns and graduate students, and volunteers are potential observers.

5. Train the observers.

It is critical that the observers are well trained in your data collection process to ensure high quality and consistent data. The level of training will vary based on the complexity of the data collection and the individual capabilities of the observers.

6. Time your observations appropriately.

Programs and processes typically follow a sequence of events. It is critical that you schedule your observations so you are observing the components of the activity that will answer your evaluation questions. This requires advance planning.

7. Pilot testing and revising the guide and check lists

Having prepared the guides and checklists and having determined the area where the observation is going to be done, the guides and check lists are tested or tried out on a selected number of elements to ensure that they will generate the data needed to answer the research questions when applied to the entire target population. Any errors found in the guides and check lists will be corrected.

8. Conduct the Observations

After pilot testing and revising the guide as needed, you are now ready to begin the field work.

a.   Preparing for Field Work

Ensure that the following are available for use by observers before they move into the field.

1. i.      Latest version of the observation guide and data collection forms
2. Notebook for making notes
3. Pens/Pencils
4. Any other recording equipment such as tape recorder that will be used

Appropriate dress should be chosen to be unobtrusive. For example, an observer wearing a suit to collect data in a rural village would stand out and interfere with normal activities.  On the other hand, an observer wearing suit in a highly corporate organization can often blend most easily into the background.

b.   Conduct the Observations

On the day of the observation, observers should arrive early at the venue to make the necessary preparations.  Such preparations will include locating observation positions.  Being in position as employees and clients or elements arrive can help observers appear more natural.  When everything is set the observation can proceed as follows:

i. Getting Started

It may sometimes be necessary to inform and explain your presence to those being observed.  How this is done depends on the setting and people involved. It is best to have your host usually the officer in charge, do this introduction.  At this very first stage, display friendliness and show interest.

A prospective observer must gain the trust, confidence and cooperation of subjects.  However, even after achieving this, the observer's presence may sometimes influence behaviour and events being observed.  The observer must be aware of this possibility and try to prevent it by positioning himself/herself away from the center of activity, and by writing as inconspicuously as possible.  It may also reduce bias if the first few encounters observed are not included in the sample, giving time for everyone to become used to the observer’s presence.

ii. Observing

Remain reasonably detached yet attentive. Observers must record observations as systematically and accurately as possible. The use of observational guides or forms should enable them to record events easily. It is also important to write notes about events that are not included in the guides or forms.  These qualitative data will add flavor to the interpretation of the more structured items and could provide unexpected, but relevant information.  For example, the fact that female clients are not served by male officials in a religious organisation may not have been captured by the observation protocol, but could be a key finding for developing an intervention.

Observers may also make sketches of observation situations and note other non-verbal communication.

iii. Wrap-Up

At the end of the session remember to thank the staff and your host.  In some situations, it may also be appropriate to thank clients immediately after the encounter. On the other hand, it is best to wait until the end of a day's field work before you say thank you to staff.  Sort out any problems you might have encountered with your host if it is within his/her means to help before the next observations begin.

c.   Regular Review of Data

During the field work, there must be a regular review of the data by the investigator with the observers. This is very helpful for ensuring the accuracy of recordings especially at the early stages of the study. Such a review also provides an opportunity for the investigator to discuss any problems encountered by observers in the field.

d.   Recording Information

An observation protocol must strike the correct balance between brevity and comprehensiveness in recording data during the observations. Generally, relying on the observer's memory is ideal but risky because notes made after the observation can be distorted. However, making extensive notes during the observation may also distract subjects and cause the observer to miss some important events while occupied with note taking.

Observation guides with which observers have been familiarized through training are an effective means of recording data.  The observers can check appropriate categories in the guides and write notes in available space for comments and other observations.  Normally, because events are itemized in the guide, structured observation may not always need extensive supplementary notes.  Nonetheless, notes of unexpected events not included in the guide should be recorded.

9. Analyze and Interpret the Observational Findings

The final stages of the observational study involve analyzing and interpreting the data from the field.  This can be done manually or with the aid of a computer depending upon local capability, as well as the objectives and size of the study. The steps followed are those so qualitative research data analysis.

10. Writing the Report

Writing the report is the responsibility of the investigators, but involving the entire study team will ensure that all important aspects are covered.  Discussion of findings by the team will often trigger unexpected insights about the reasons for problems or ways of improving them. The report should focus on recommendations for policy changes or specific interventions to solve the problem being studied.

Observation method (Ctd....)

Types Of Observation

1. 1.      Simple or non-controlled observation

In this method observation is made in a natural course without extra influence, that is, without controls, guidelines or instructions from external agencies and factors. Here conditions are observed which are responsible for the creation of the problem. The subject matter to be observed is left free and there is no interference. There is careful scrutiny of real life situations and there is no use of instruments.

The advantage here is that uncontrolled observation realizes first hand information of the group being studied without extra influence and pressure.

The problem with this type of observation is that one cannot solve or find solutions to complex facts hence it becomes difficult to find out the cause of a social phenomenon and many crucial elements might even be over looked during the course of the observation.

Uncontrolled observation cannot easily be avoidable becaue in many cases it is difficult to control social phenomenon. This method is unavoidable because social events cannot be artificially created and these will have to be watched carefully as and when they occur. It should also be noted that when the observer becomes part of the group under observation, he/she might associate too much with the groups and hence might fail to observe anything worth noting because of he/she taking these actions of respondents as routine which actually should have been observed and noted.

Furthermore, the observer could observe many other things which he/she would subsequently prove useless although at the time of observation they appeared to be of some significance. This means that useless data can be collected which is a wastage of time and energy.

Types of Non controlled observation

a)      Non-participant observation

b)      Participant observation

a) Non-controlled non-participant observation. In this method, the observer does not actually participant but watches everything from a distance. The observer is very passive and does not influence the activity in any manner but keeps a penetrating eye on the events that take place.

Advantages of non-controlled non-participant observation

i. The observer maintains his/her status as an observer and remains unattached and impartial. He/she is not actively participating or influencing the situation.

ii. The observer remains away from two or more groups rivaling or quarreling and hence can get information and data for his/her study from both groups.

iii. Since the observer does not mix with the group, he/she can observe two situations very carefully and does not observe the things superficially. It becomes possible to observe and collect information in an objective manner.

iv. Information collected is quite dependable because the observer observes so many things. Having obtained co-operation from the group, he/she gets information that is dependable and reliable.

v. The observer is a stranger and hence less involved emotionally with social situations. The members of the group therefore may feel free to talk  and discuss with their own intimacy.

Disadvantages of non-controlled non-participant observation

i. There is no real observation by remaining and non-participant i.e. it becomes difficult to penetrate into a problem without actual participation.

ii. Many personal beliefs and ideas in the mind of the observer are likely to affect his/her observation and hence true objective appreciation of the situation becomes very difficulty i.e. when the observer goes to the field, he/she has ideas and prejudices and the observation will be made with such subjectivity. The subjectivity reduces on the objectivity.

iii. When the observer is not participating, he/she misses many things he/she would have observed. The study then becomes incomplete and difficult to connect one situation with the other.

Iv. It has been noted that once the observer is not part of the groups, the people will not co-operate with him/her. He/she will not be in a position to establish rapport and as such, everybody will view the observed activities with considerable suspicion.

v. If the observe is present and the groups is conscious of this presence, the whole group may not behave and act in the manner they would ordinarily behave.

b) Non-controlled participant observation

Here, the observer participates in the activities of the group whose behaviour is to be observed hence watching of events from inside the group. The researcher becomes, or is, part of the group that is being investigated. Participant observation has its roots in ethnographic studies (study of man and races) where researchers would live in tribal villages, attempting to understand the customs and practices of respective cultures. It has a very extensive literature, particularly in sociology (development, nature and laws of human society) and anthropology (physiological and psychological study of man). Organisations can be viewed as ‘tribes’ with their own customs and practices. This involves the researcher personally taking part in the activity about which he/she is collecting data

From the experiences, the research can develop certain attitudes and feelings and later make conclusions.

Precautions to be taken in participant observation

i. The observer must behave in a responsible manner to get into the operations of the group.

ii. The observer should not behave as superior to the group. The observer should just make them feel that they are of equal cultural, economic or social status as him/her.

iii. The researcher should not acquire any status in a group.

iv. The researcher should remain objective in his/her approach.

The role of the participant observer is not simple. The different ways of classifying the role are as follows:

i) Researcher as employee.

ii) Researcher as an explicit role.

iii) Interrupted involvement.

iv) Observation alone.

The above are explained as under;

i. Researcher as employee

The researcher works within the organisation alongside other employees, effectively as one of them. The may be done openly or with deception. The role of the researcher may or may not be explicit and this will have implications for the extent to which he or she will be able to move around and gather information and perspectives from other sources. This role is appropriate when the researcher needs to become totally immersed and experience the work or situation at first hand. There are a number of dilemmas in this. For example, Do you tell management and the unions of problems in the organisation? Friendships may compromise the research. What are the ethics of the process? Can anonymity be maintained? Skill and competence to undertake the work may be required. The research may be over a long period of time.

ii. Researcher as an explicit role

The researcher is present everyday over a period of time but entry is negotiated in advance with management and preferably with employees as well. The individual is clearly in the role of a researcher who can move around, observe, interview and participate in the work as appropriate. This type of role is the most favoured as it provides many of the insights that the complete observer would gain, whilst offering much greater flexibility without the ethical problems that deception entails.

iii. Interrupted involvement

The researcher is present sporadically over a period of time, for example, moving in and out of the organisation to deal with other work or to conduct interviews with, or observations of, different people across a number of different organisations. It rarely involves much participation by the observer in the work.

iv. Observation alone

Here the research goes into the organisation and only observes as people do their work. He/she sits in one place and watches or walks around while noting what he/she is observing. The observer’s role is often disliked by employees since it appears to be ‘eavesdropping’. The inevitable detachment prevents the degree of trust and friendship forming between the researcher and respondent, which is an important component in other methods.

Choice of roles

The role adopted during observation depends on the following:

i) Purpose of the research: Does the research require continued longitudinal involvement (long period of time), or will it need in-depth interviews, for example, conducted over time give the type of insights required?

ii) Cost of the research: To what extent can the researcher afford to be committed for extended periods of time? Are there additional costs such as training?

iii) The extent to which access can be gained: Gaining access where the role of the researcher is either explicit or covert/hidden can be difficult, and may take time.

iv) The extent to which the researcher would be comfortable in the role: If the researcher intends to keep his identity concealed, will he or she also be able to develop the type of trusting relationships that are important? What are the ethical issues?

v) The amount of time the researcher has at his/her disposal: Some methods involve a considerable amount of time. If time is a problem, alternate approaches will have to be sought.

2. Controlled Observation

In this method observation is in an artificial setting with extra influence, that is, with controls, guidelines or instructions from external agencies and factors. Here conditions are set and observed to establish whether they are responsible for the creation of the problem. The subject matter to be observed is not left free and there is interference. There is use of instruments.

Controlled observation involves the following;

a.The planning of observation

There should be properly formulated processes. Efforts are made to find out if the hypothesis is right or wrong. If the hypotheses occur, then the observer will be faced with difficulty. In controlled observation, the main idea is to prove whatever the hypothesis is correct or not. It is necessary to determine all details about the hypothesis to be tested, know the facts and causes that pertain to the hypothesis. The situation of the observation is brocken into smaller units and only one by one of these are studied. This saves time and helps in getting precise observation.

b. The use of mechanical appliances

Observation becomes easy with the use of mechanical devices e.g. video recorder, camera, tape recorder etc. The photos taken can be studies at leisure and the voice recorded can be listened to at ease. Mechanical devices help in studies with a problem that call for a researcher to very systematically observe a lot of things and the material collected can be preserved for a long time.

c. Map

This shows a relation of topographical aspects of a community to its social organization. This will help in finding out mutual relationship or various aspects of a social organisation

d. Detailed notes

Notes taken during the course of observation must be immediately transcribed. These notes are of great value and the observer in grasping certain relationships of events.

e. Socio-metric scales

These measure social aspects like attitudes, morals, status, social processing of adjustment, etc. They are used as tools during observation e.g. the likert scale.

f. Group observation

In individual observation exists considerable bias and subjectively. However, in group observation the observers will observe the same aspect collectively. Each takes notes which are later compared and finally, deductions are made. Controlled observation usually takes on group observation as opposed to individual observation.

Question

Distinguish between non-participant observation and participant observation as techniques of non-controlled observation.

Observation method (Ctd....)

General Evaluation Of Observation

Advantages Of Observation

1. Directness -This method provides direct access to the social phenomena under consideration. Instead of relying on some kind of self-report, such as asking people what they would do in a certain situation, you actually observe and record their behaviour in that situation. This, in principle at least, avoids the wide range of problems associated with self-report. In an interview situation or in response to a questionnaire item, for example, a person may not always provide accurate or complete information, or they might answer in ways that correspond to what is socially desirable.  There is a recognised source of bias in self-report techniques referred to as a 'social desirability set', which means that in many spheres of social life there are socially desirable ways of behaving and, consciously or unconsciously, individuals will tend to respond in that way, although in the 'real world' they might behave differently. Asking children whether they would tend to be helpful to other children in certain situations, for example, would be susceptible to such a source of bias.
2. The method is simple and easy - Observation is one of the simplest method of studying social and business problems. A trained observer goes to the field and observes the situation in which he/she has been placed. However, the training of the observer must be done carfully with the emphasis of the key issues to be observed. The person being picked as the observer must have insight, interest, deep knowledge and understanding and can be appreciated for his hard work and interpreting.
3. Diversity, Flexibility and Applicability - Observation can take diverse forms, from informal and unstructured approaches through to tightly structured, standardised procedures and can yield associated diverse types of data, both qualitative and quantitative. Observation, therefore, is applicable in a wide range of contexts.
4. Provision of a permanent record - Much of human social behaviour that may be of interest to the researcher is temporary or lasts for a short time. The fact that all observation entails some form of recording means that it provides a permanent record of such events or behaviour, thus allowing further analysis or subsequent comparisons across time or location to be carried out.
5. Complementarity with other approaches - Using more than one technique of data collection through a process of triangulation is seen as highly desirable as an overarching research strategy. Therefore, another strength of observation is that it can effectively complement other approaches and thus enhance the quality of evidence available to the researcher. For instance, as you interview an employee about their motivation level, you can also observe their body language as they answer the questions.
6. The method is helpful for formulation of hypothesis - testing an hypothesis is done by the observer and if the hypothesis is not sound then it can be modified. Observation method helps in the development and formulation of the hypothesis. Thus, with the help of observation, the researcher comes to know about the sequence or course and effect of the mutual relationship of different variables. With observation, the researcher can formulate the hypothesis and it also become possible to test the validity of the hypothesis.
7. Greater accuracy is possible - The observer collects the data depending on what is observed and it is very accurate and a first hand collection which can be fairly dependable. This will be possible if the interpretation is done in an unbiased manner. There should be dependence on the researcher with a scence of responsibility and sincerity. This data is dependable in the sense that the observer knows the extend to which he has been inaccurate and the extent to which accuracy has been maintained throughout the whole observation.

Disadvantages of observation

1. Time consuming - Observation may be a very desirable strategy to explore certain research questions, but it may simply not be feasible for the researcher with limited time to carry out the observation and, therefore, alternative strategies would have to be pursued. It is also a slow process.
2. High cost – Observation involves alot of costs if the subjects are many and disbursed. The subjects to be observed may be few but the costs incurred in observing long procedures and taking record may be high.The method is also costly because it entails traveling to places where the phenomena is to be observed. A good sum of money will be required for maintenance of the observer during the study. Money will also be spent for purchase of modern equipment if its to be used to build rapport with the people to be observed e.g. drunkards. The costs may also increase if the phenomena to be observed take a long time and the observer is required to keep on waiting and if it is done by a team, then it takes much.
3. Observer Bias - A fundamental potential weakness of observation is that it is susceptible to observer bias, that is, subjective bias on the part of the observer hence undermining the reliability and validity of the data gathered. This can be because the observer sometimes records not what actually happened, but what they either wanted to see, expected to see, or merely thought they saw.
4. Observer Effect -  Another potential weakness of observation is the so-called observer effect, which refers to the way in which the presence of an observer in some way influences the behaviour of those being observed. In order to avoid or minimise this, methods of observation sometimes attempt to be as unobtrusive as possible, that is, try to be un-noticed when observing.
5. Attraction by striking features - The observer is usually committed by the time he/she goes out to the field. However, many situations attract the observer’s eye and the observer is likely to observer these very keenly without linking these to the hypothesis in the study yet the hypothesis is the aspect in the study. The observer has to safeguard against observing the need and stricking feature from the cultural aspects context and arbitral model of life. It is necessary to observe this but in line with the hypothesis in place.
6. There is a tendency to observe in the light of one’s own culture - The observer lives in a cultural situation which he/she is quite familiar with. The result of all this is that the observer views everything from that point of view. It a common weakness which this method of study has because the results depend on cultural inclination of the observer. Usually no attempt is made to find out in which social background and belief the facts have been accepted by the present society.
7. Lack of proper orientation - The observer may be new to the society where the observation is to be made.This provides him/her with little knowledge which might help little in the study. And if the study has to be done in depth, then there is always need for basic orientation which can only be possible when the observer leaves among the people to be observed for quite sometime.
8. The study of all the situations is not possible - observation method becomes successful when the observer is allowed to fully participate in the situation. However, there are many occasions when the observer cannot be present and will not be allowed to be present at all times e.g. smuggling, prostitution, rape cases, emotional issues, etc. There are many cases like these where the observer cannot be present and observe such situations.
9. Observation is much beyond the observer’s control - The observer has prepared his schedule/plan of observation to suit the his/her convenience. However, concern arises when it is not possible to manage all situations. Every situation thought of should takes its own course and the situation. A problem arises because the observer cannot ask the groups to create that situation that suits his convenience. Furthermore, once a particular situation has risen suddenly, it may go un-noticed and it may never be repeated at all. Hence observation method of study is much beyond the control of the observer.
10. Low reliability - The conclusions of the observation method are based on the observation of an individual. Such an individual has personal sentiments, attachments, feelings, attitudes, etc so conclusions will be drawn in light of these, hence, a loss of reliability. Unreliability comes because the observer cannot prove that whatever is concluded is the real observation in all cases.
11. Lack of qualified observers - The observer needs deep insight and capacity to pick and interpret the mind of the respondents to be observed. He/she may not be satisfied with what he/she has seen. He/she should be capable enough to interpreter and read inner meanings and intentions of the observed so that they can avoid wrong conclusions. There are times we are likely to get wrong findings.
12. It is not an independent method - Many things are observed with the eye and and in-depth study can be made if the observer spends sometime in the filed and establishes rapport within the people. This method is not independent of other methods. It helps other methods like interviews and questionnaires in completing research findings and making them reliable and dependable.
13. No natural atmosphere –social and business research is best done when the observer observers a situation in which people are observed in the natural way as they go on with their activities. However, when people know that they are being observed, they try to pose rather than behave in a natural manner. Where there is no natural situation, results to become unreliable and undependable.
14. Discomfort felt by respondents- Some respondents feel uncomfortable when being observed. If a researcher starts filming and observing individual as they carry out some activities, the ones observed may take offense hence affecting the progress of the research.
15. Observation may expose the researcher to harsh and dangerous conditions- In case a researcher has to be present and participate during a study, there are situations when the activities are carried out under risky conditions say exposure to chemicals, very heavy workload, insecure places or even bad weather.

3. PROJECTIVE TECHNIQUES

When a researcher uses projective techniques, (s)he asks an informant to react to some kind of visual or verbal stimulus. A technique is projective when it indirectly encourages the expression of psychologically motivating material (imagery) of which the respondent is otherwise unaware.

These techniques use third party referencing in order to obtain information. Rather than questioning the respondent, the researcher uses word association, story telling, cartoons, sentences completion, and pictures to which the respondent reacts.

Projective techniques explore associations with brands, symbols, products, advertising, and images. It explores people’s subconscious feelings, beliefs, and desires. Respondents project their feelings and beliefs about other people or objects. In doing so, they reveal feelings and beliefs about themselves. With sensitive subjects, the technique works well.

Four Practical Projective Techniques

This is not an exhaustive list.

1)       Metaphors, Analogies, and Similes

2)       Third-Party Projections

3)       Role-Playing

4)       Associations

1. Metaphors, Analogies, and Similes

A metaphor represents or explains something in terms of another. Metaphors explain complex or new subjects [target domains] by using a familiar subject [source domain].

Metaphors are a window to the mind. The purpose of understanding metaphors is to understand people’s mindset and feelings about something.

Most importantly, metaphors can reveal underlying emotions about a target domain such as a product or brand. And, one can infer whether emotions are positive, negative, or neutral.

You can use the results from metaphor techniques to develop advertising techniques, brands, sales pitches, and to support product or brand positioning.

Here is a simple sentence completion exercise using similes. Ask respondents to complete the sentence.

“My cell phone is like a…”

Here are some results at the category level for cell phones.

“A cell phone is like a best friend.”

“My cell phone is part of my body.”

“A cell phone is like my wallet. I would never leave home without it.

“A cell phone is like a lifeline now. Leaving it behind is like cutting off the oxygen supply.”

The results show cell phones are a necessity for a segment of consumers.

Besides sentence completion, you can also ask respondents to associate a product or brand to pictures and images.

You can also ask them to draw pictures. Another way to elicit metaphors is to ask respondents to complete storyboards.

2. Third-Party Projections

With this technique, you ask respondents to describe what other people are doing, thinking, feeling, believing, and saying. Ask respondents to project to a third-party.

Here are some example questions.

“What does your friend think about brand X?”

“What does company X think about you?”

“Who uses brand X? What is the real reason they use it?”

Ask follow-up questions and probe answers, using the third person.

Use third-party projections for sensitive subjects. In other words, when people hide or deny their real thoughts, feelings, or beliefs.

3. Role Playing

You ask respondents to assume a role and act the part. It is a variant of third-party projection.

“If you were the product manager, what would you do to improve the product?”

“If you were the CEO of this company, what would you do to reduce customer complaints?”

“If you were the creative director, what would your ad say?”

“If you were in your friend’s shoes, what would you do?”

Use role-playing when asking for product or advertising recommendations.

4. Associations

You ask respondents to link a word or image to a category, product, brand, or event. Then ask how the association ties to the topic.

You get people to bind one concept to another. Often associations produce metaphors, analogies, and similes.

Some association techniques include word associations, imagery associations, and personifications.

Here are examples,

a. Word Associations

Provide a prompt in the form of a word, phrase, or sentence and ask respondents to associate something with it.

“When you think of your service provider, what is the first thing that comes to mind?”

“What comes to mind when you hear the term customer service?”

“When you see brand X, what image comes to mind?”

b. Imagery Associations

Show people an image, or ask them to bring or select an image.

Images are pictures, drawings, or illustrations. Then, ask people to describe the image.

Ask how it links to a product, brand, object, or person. Also, ask the respondents to imagine an image and describe it.

“Please select a picture that best represents product X. How does the picture speak about product X?”

“How does the image describe product X?”

“What does each person in this picture feel about brand Y?”

Ask several follow-up questions about how the association relates, and probe to clarify.

c. Personification Associations

Personification asks respondents to give human characteristics to products, services, or brands.

“If your Volvo could talk, what would it say to you?”

“If brand X were a person, what would he or she look like?”

“How does your digital camera feel about you?”

Personification is fun. The challenge of personification is interpretation of data and analysis.

Use associations to understand imagery and stimulate memory recall.

Advantage of projective techniques

a)      The amount of richness and accuracy of the information that is collected is high.

b)      They can make a significant contributions if the research is concerned with beliefs, values, motivation, personality or other aspects related to individuals, their unique cognitions and behaviour.

c)      These techniques provide a view of the overall functioning of individuals.

d)      Projective techniques are useful as a way of ‘breaking the ice” in a focus group discussion at the start of a qualitative research project. Projectives allow research participants to sit back, relax, and to view their responses as if they were watching a movie screen, unaware, for the moment, that they wrote the film and that they hold the projector.

e)        Subjects enjoy projective techniques that create new energy in a group discussion and lighten the mood or tone of the proceedings.

f)      The tasks presented to the subjects are usually somewhat novel and quite unstructured. They do not perceive right or wrong answers to the exercise and are encouraged to respond with a wide range of ideas.

g)      Most of these techniques make little or no demand in terms of literacy or academic skills. They are predominantly nonreading, largely independent or particular to languages and in some cases do not involve speech at all. Their scope is therefore much wider than that of self-reporting or rating procedures. A projective technique doesn't require intellectual reasoning.

Disadvantage of projective techniques

a)  The complexity of data and the corresponding skills required for the researcher. The responses have little meaning without careful evaluation by researchers who are both trained and skilled interpreters of information.

b) A considerable degree of subjectivity applies in the interpretation of responses to projective techniques and the experts frequently disagree among themselves.

c) Projective techniques are expensive to administer because highly skilled research staff have to be employed.

d) It is difficult to perform projective tests with statistically significant samples and this restricts generalization of the sample results to the population as a whole.

e) It may be difficult to get the subjects to project themselves into the roles the researchers wish them to assume. Some subjects may not agree to participate in exercises such as role playing.

f) The reliability of measures is very difficult to establish.

4. EXPERIMENTATION

It is one in which the researcher is able to manipulate and directly control the independent variables. It represents a scientific approach in which a selected sample is subjected to a particular condition (stimulus) and then changes that result from this condition are recorded and reported. These changes may be compared with a control group not subjected to the condition or stimulus or with the state of the same group before the stimulus condition was applied.

Advantages

a)      Helps the researcher to gain insight into methods of solving problems

b)      An intuitive practice is shaped by research since the researcher has to make conclusions.

c)      Even if the researcher has bias, he/she can be reflective

d)      The researcher can have control over the variables

e)      It can be combined with other research methods for rigor

f)        It can be used to determine what is best for the organisation

Disadvantages

a)      Experiments are subject to human error

b)      Personal bias of researcher may intrude

c)      The sample may not be representative

d)      It can produce artificial results

e)      results may only apply to one situation and may be difficult to replicate

f)        The groups upon which the experiment is conducted may not be comparable

g)      Human response can be difficult to measure

h)      Political pressure may skew results

i)        Time consuming

5. DOCUMENTATION REVIEW / ARCHIVAL RESEARCH

This is used for collecting secondary data about attitudes and behaviour. It involves reading several reports, journals and any archived information about a given variable.

There is a tendency not to consider secondary data as part of the research process, but to focus only on primary or ‘original’ data

But secondary data can be extremely useful for background material and setting organizational cases in wider context. The a vast amount of existing data ‘out there’; large amounts in organizations, media, government, data banks and the Internet - both for storage and reference.

Advantages

1. Resource implications – usually easier to gather than primary data. Large amounts of information can be collected in a short period of time and in a relatively cost effective way.Generally it is relatively quick to collect information. This potential is not often realised, as returns from questionnaires are usually low.
2. Can be carried out by the researcher with limited effect to its validity and reliability since
3. Can be analysed more easily, 'scientifically' and objectively than other forms of research. Data entry and tabulation for nearly all surveys can be easily done with many computer software packages.
4. It can be used for sensitive topics which pontial respondes may otherwise feel uncomfortable speaking about to an interviewer.
5. The researcher does not have to depend of the respondent’s memory as is the case with the quesionnaire method.
6. the researcher is assured that he/she will get the responses since there is not chance for a respondent refusing or delaying to co-operate as is the case witht the interview method.
7. In case the researcher forgets some information or to answer a question, he/she can usually go back to the documents and read them again.
8. Longitudinal study may be possible. It is possible to investigate long, complex issues that need a lot of care and time. The researcher can return to the data source and follow up /investigate issues in greater depth.
9. It is Unobtrusive  in that data is already collected making it a familiar and simple method to use.
10. Quality of data is present. Depending on the source, high quality data can be attained eg. government surveys are well funded and are usuaaly of high quaility.
11. The data source is permanent such that any time the researcher want to refer, they can fall back to the data set.

Disadvantages

1)      Suitability – This method is not suitable for certain types of studies that call for the respondents observing phenomena directly.

2)      Cost and access – may still be difficult in spite of resource advantages. This is because the secondary data source may be far or the researcher may have to pay some money to access it say in a private library, resource center of internet.

3)      Validity of some secondary data (eg. Internet sources). Some of the information got from the internet may not be valid since authors and researchers collecting it may not have followed ethical principles of publishing and research.

4)      Data may be insufficient for that particular problem at hand since it was collected for another purpose.

5)      It is considered to be inadequate to understand some forms of information especially changes of emotions, behaviour, feelings etc of the subjects about whom the research was written. Nearly ninety percent of all communication is visual. Gestures and other visual cues are not available with written materials.

6)      It is not possible to have futher explaination on any points in the material that the researcher might wish to clarrify.

7)      It is not possible for illiterate people to applyc this method.

8)      The documents may be misinterpreted since in cases were the researcher does not know under what circumstances the author wrote the document.

9)      Data may be inapplicable or it may be old as opposed to interviews and observation which yield current information.

INSTRUMENTS/ TOOLS OF DATA COLLECTION

An Instrument is a tool used to collect data

Factors to consider when selecting an instrument are

1. Well-tested factorial structure, validity & reliability
2. Availability of supportive materials and technology for entering, analyzing and interpreting results
3. Availability of normative data as a reference for evaluating, interpreting, or placing in context individual test scores
4. Applicable to wide range of participants
5. Can also be used as personal development tool/exercise
6. User-friendliness & administrative ease
7. Availability; can you obtain it?Does it require permission from the owner to use it?
8. Financial cost
9. Amount of time required

Characteristics of good Measurement Instruments

1. Valid and reliable
2. Instruments should be attractive, brief and easy to respond to
3. Carefully plan the format and content
4. Do not include items that do not relate to your topic
5. Structured selection type questions are preferable

Process to be followed when preparing a good instrument/tool

1. ØDefine your objectives
2. ØUnderstand your key terms
3. ØReview literature for similar studies as yours
4. ØDevelop a framework for yourself
5. ØWrite questions
6. ØBe wise in choosing item formats
7. ØALWAYS PILOT YOUR INSTRUMENTS

Common Instruments/ Tools of data collection

1. 1.      Questionnaire

A questionnaire may be defined as a set of formalized questions used in a survey to collect information which is later analyzed to provide results necessary for solving a given research problem.

2. Interview guide

This is a sample or a list of questions or fairly specific topics to cover while conducting an interview. It is an essential component for conducting interview.

The term can be employed to refer to the brief list of memory prompts of areas to be covered that is often employed in unstructured interviewing or to the somewhat more structured list of issues to be addressed or questions to be asked in semi-structured interviewing.

The formulation of the research question(s) should not be so specific that alternative avenues of enquiry that might arise during the collection of fieldwork data are closed off.

You should also consider ‘What do I need to know in order to answer each of the research questions I’m interested in?’ This means trying to get an appreciation of what the interviewee sees as significant and important in relation to each of your topic areas. Thus, your questing will need to cover the areas that you need but from the perspective of your interviewees. Questions that are not included in the guide may be asked as they pick up on things said by interviewers. But, by and large, all of the questions will be asked and a similar wording will be used from interviewee to interviewee

Some basic elements in the preparation of your interview guide will be:

a)      create a certain amount of order on the topic areas, so that your questions about them flow reasonably well, but be prepared to alter the order of questions during the actual interview;

b)      formulate interview questions or topics in a way that will help you to answer your research questions (but try not to make them too specific);

c)      try to use a language that is comprehensible and relevant to the people you are interviewing;

d)     just as in interviewing in quantitative research, do not ask leading questions;

e)      remember to ensure that you ask or record ‘facesheet’ information of a general kind (name, age, gender, etc.) and a specific kind (position in company, number of years unemployed, number of years involved in a group, etc.), because such information is useful for contextualizing people’s answers

1. 3.      Observation guides/ Observation Schedules

These are forms that describe what a researcher sees, hears, feels and/experiences during the process of observation. They also comprise of forms containing what the researcher is supposed to observer, the procedures to follow during observation and how to record the observations. They are preliminary lists of issues to be observed, and the categories in which to record them prepared in advance based on the objectives of the study.

When using observation guides, record behaviors you observe, as  well as those you only hear about. Record as many behaviors as you can, but be careful to record only the behavior and not what you think it means.

They are usually prepared by the investigator(s) and/or the resource persons directing the study who are the appropriate persons responsible for writing the guides.  However, it is advisable and helpful to involve the observers (if separate from the researcher) to enable them have input and familiarize themselves with the study.  Useful input might also be obtained from people who would have special insight into the interactions being observed (e.g., experienced managers, community leaders, etc), or administrators who will be involved in later interventions.

Structure and Contents of Guide

Since it is difficult to predict observable behavior in advance, a draft protocol can initially be partially structured.   More attention should be paid to specific aspects that appear central to the problem as the study proceeds, and a final observation guide prepared.

The guide should be prepared to suit local situations; the input of the field team is particularly useful. You may also find it useful to begin with the rough copies of instruments and protocols and adapt them to the local environment and problem of interest.

An example of an observation guide can be seen below;

http://science.education.nih.gov/supplements/nih7/healthy/guide/nih_healthy-behaviors_mstr.pdf

1. 4.      Diaries/ journals

A diary is a way of gathering information about the way individuals spend their time on professional activities. They are not about records of engagements or personal journals of thought! Diaries can record either quantitative or qualitative data, and in management research can provide information about work patterns and activities.

Advantages of diaries

a)       Useful for collecting information from employees.

b)       Different writers compared and contrasted simultaneously.

c)       Allows the researcher freedom to move from one organization to another.

d)       Researcher not personally involved.

e)       Diaries can be used as a preliminary or basis for intensive interviewing.

f)        Used as an alternative to direct observation or where resources are limited.

Disadvantages diaries

a)      Subjects need to be clear about what they are being asked to do, why and what you plan to do with the data.

b)      Diarists need to be of a certain educational level.

c)      Some structure is necessary to give the diarist focus, for example, a list of headings.

d)     Encouragement and reassurance are needed as completing a diary is time-consuming and can be irritating after a while.

e)      Progress needs checking from time-to-time.

f)       Confidentiality is required as content may be critical.

g)      Analyses problems, so you need to consider how responses will be coded before the subjects start filling in diaries.

1. 5.      audio recorders

These are devices used for capturing voice communication during interviews. With approaches that entail detailed attention to language, such as conversation analysis and discourse analysis, the recording of conversations and interviews is to all intents and purposes mandatory. However, researchers who use qualitative interviews and focus groups also tend to record and then transcribe interviews. You may want to dictate your observations as soon as possible into a tape recorder for later analysis. Small pocket tape recorders are handy.

Heritage (1984) suggests that the procedure of recording and transcription interviews has the following advantages:

a)      It helps to correct the natural limitations of our memories and of the intuitive glosses that we might place on what people say in interviews;

b)      it allows more thorough examination of what people say;

c)      it permits repeated examinations of the interviewees’ answers it opens up the data to public scrutiny by other researchers, who can evaluate the analysis that is carried out by the original researchers of the data (that is, asecondary analysis);

d)     it therefore helps to counter accusations that an analysis might have been in fluenced by a researcher’s values or biases;

e)      it allows the data to be reused in other ways from those intended by the original researcher–– for example, in the light of new theoretical ideas or analytic strategies.

However, it has to be recognized that the procedure is very time-consuming. It also requires good equipment, usually in the form of a good-quality tape recorder and microphone but also, if possible, a transcription machine.

Transcription also very quickly results in a daunting pile of paper. Also, recording equipment may be offputting for interviewees.

Instruments/tools Ctd...

1. 6.      Video recorders

These are devices/cameras used to capture motion pictures as tools of observation. Technological developments such as video camcorders and the even smaller palmcorders have made the use of video for recording observations much easier. The camera is positioned to capture talk, movement, gesture and machine interaction.

Some questions to ask before deciding to use video include:

1. What is the purpose of the video? Is it primarily for presentation or analysis?
2. What is the value of using video in the specific context?
3. Is particular information required which cannot be gained from another source?
4. What are the difficulties of using video in the particular context?
5. How will video recording complement other methods of data collection?

Advantages of using Video

1. Video is particularly suitable for fairly detailed analyses of language and interactions.
2. Because video can be viewed as many times as required, it is possible to delay making final decisions about analysis until the researcher is confident about the appropriate approach and which aspects will be highlighted.
3. Recording on video is not substitute for other forms of data collection but it offers the permanence of the record.
4. The retrievability of data to share with others. The data recorded can be shared with several people in different location.
5. Checking findings is possible and easy since the researcher can play back the video and review aspects of the recording.
6. It is possible to review each session’s recordings on the same day and take further notes to supplement those taken in the field while events are still fresh.
7. Using video can bring your research alive. Presentations of your research are much more interesting if the audience can see the events you are discussing.
8. Similarly, it is much easier to share and discuss emergent findings with other researchers and practitioners if you can review interesting or problematic sections and other researchers can test the validity of your findings by analysing the same video material. Just remember not to be over-ambitious in the quantity of video you amass and make sure that you have permission from all participants.

Disadvantages of using video

1. As a microphone attached to the video camera is not suitable, the sound quality may be poor. An external microphone is therefore needed to improve sound quality and make transcription easier.
2. There are a number of unobservable processes (eg thoughts, attitudes, feelings and perceptions) which all represent potentially important sources of data.
3. Video is often associated with a naturalistic approach to data collection but the presence of a video camera inevitably introduces an element of artifice. People may behave differently if they know that they are being recorded on video.
4. Using video in the field is much easier if there are two or more people. There are usually tight time and space constraints and being able to share setting up and putting away the equipment makes it much easier to log the relevant information and put participants at their ease. Time can be saved by colour coding cables and sockets and by taking a wiring diagram if using a lot of equipment. It’s also worth making an equipment checklist to use both when collecting and returning equipment. Take masking tape for taping down the multitude of cables and make sure participants are aware of potential dangers. Take extension leads. Always use a tripod unless the flexibility of hand-held shots is essential. An external microphone is usually necessary. Take spare batteries for the microphone.
5. Extensive use of video is quite demanding in terms of carrying equipment, setting it up, and the usual stresses of observation in the field, so it is not always possible or desirable to spend more time reliving the events of earlier that day.
6. The main problem with storing most of the material for analysis on video is that it is relatively inaccessible. Browsing through field notes looking for specific instances or patterns is straightforward but this is not possible for video. When looking for a particular item, the researcher may have to go through all the events that happende before the one he/she is looking for.
7. It is not possible to identify particular incidents visually. Software which helps with locating events on video exists (see http://www.soc.surrey.ac.uk/caqdas/index.html  and http://www.noldus.com/products/observer/index.html ) but computers on which video can be played are still relatively unusual and the software does not remove the need for initial viewing and coding. Future developments will make this process more efficient.
8. Video recording may not stand alone. It will have to be complemented by other methods of data collection.
9. The gadgets tend to be extremely expensive.

1. 7.      Recording sheets and checklists

Checklists structure a person’s observation or evaluation of a performance or artifact. They can be simple lists of criteria that can be marked as present or absent, or can provide space for observer comments. These tools can provide consistency over time or between observers. Checklists can be used for evaluating databases, the use of library space, or for structuring peer observations of instruction sessions.

They are the most standardized way of collecting observation data and include both preset questions and responses. These forms are typically used for collecting data that can be easily described in advance.

1. 8.      Still Photograph Cameras

These are devices/cameras used to capture still photographs/ pictures as tools of observation. Using a camera for digital photography is a useful tool for collecting data during outdoor field study. It increases researcher engagement and also improves the quality of the data. Cameras can be used to record observations. The camera is an extension of your eye. The camera makes a record that can be analyzed later and may be used to illustrate your report. Researchers could use digital cameras to take pictures of the things that they are writing about

Advantages of using Still Photograph cameras

1. Photographs, sketches, etc. can be easily collected
2. More flexible and mobile
3. Researchers can feel they had more to write about when looking at their pictures as compared to their own drawings. Interestingly, researchers  write less while at the observation venue when they have the camera, relying on the pictures to tell the story
4. Because photographs can be viewed as many times as required, it is possible to delay making final decisions about analysis until the researcher is confident about the appropriate approach and which aspects will be highlighted.
5. Photographs offer the permanence of the record.
6. The retrievability of data to share with others. The data recorded can be shared with several people in different location.
7. Checking findings is possible and easy since the researcher can look through the album or storage place of the photos and review aspects of interest.
8. It is possible to review each event’s recordings on the same day and take further notes to supplement those taken in the field while events are still fresh.

Disadvantages of using still photograph cameras

1. One drawback is transcribing the data which can be onerous if many hours have to be transcribed
2. The gadgets tend to be extremely expensive.
3. There are a number of unphotographable processes (eg thoughts, attitudes, feelings and perceptions) which all represent potentially important sources of data.
4. People may behave differently if they know that they are being photographed.
5. Extensive use of photography is quite demanding in terms of carrying equipment, setting it up, and the usual stresses of observation in the field, so it is not always possible or desirable to spend more time reliving the events of earlier that day.
6. Because the participants are static, it is not possible to identify particular incidents visually.
7. Photography may not stand alone. It will have to be complemented by other methods of data collection.

Field Notes

This is the least structured way to record observations. Originating from the field of anthropology, using field notes in  means recording observations in a narrative, descriptive style as you notice or hear something important. There is no predetermined item or behavior to observe and, thus, no printed recording form. Often a notebook is used to record these observations. Leave a wide margin on one side of the notebook paper to facilitate later analysis of the text.

Remember to carefully record the date, location and any relevant contextual information for all field note entries. You may select certain sites/programs/situations to visit or record observations spontaneously when you observe programs, participants, or physical products and outcomes.

You may write down observations at the time, take brief notes and write a more descriptive narrative later . Or you may commit your observations to memory and make notes later . In some instances, you may want to dictate your observations as soon as possible into a tape recorder for later analysis. Small pocket tape recorders are particularly handy for recording field notes

Other tools

a)      Magnetic compass

b)      Writing materials like pens, pencil, ruler, note books etc.

c)      Binoculars

d)     Measuring instruments like tape measures, weighing scales, thermometers, etc

Overview of Basic Methods to Collect Data

The following table provides an overview of the basic methods to collect data.

Method | Overall Purpose | Advantages | Challenges
questionnaires, surveys,
checklists
when we need to quickly and/or easily get lots of information from people in a non threatening way
-can complete anonymously
-inexpensive to administer
-easy to compare and analyze
-administer to many people
-can get lots of data
-many sample questionnaires already exist
-might not get careful feedback
-wording can bias client's responses
-are impersonal
-in surveys, may need sampling expert
- doesn't get full story
interviews
when we want to fully understand someone's impressions or experiences, or learn more about their answers to questionnaires
-get full range and depth of information
-develops relationship with client
-can be flexible with client
-can take much time
-can be hard to analyze and compare
-can be costly
-interviewer can bias client's responses
documentation review
when we want impression of how program operates without interrupting the program; is from review of applications, finances, memos, minutes, etc.
-get comprehensive and historical information
-doesn't interrupt program or client's routine in program
-information already exists
-few biases about information
-often takes much time
-info may be incomplete
-need to be quite clear about what looking for
-not flexible means to get data; data restricted to what already exists
observation
to gather accurate information about how a program actually operates, particularly about processes
-view operations of a program as they are actually occurring
-can adapt to events as they occur
-can be difficult to interpret seen behaviors
-can be complex to categorize observations
-can influence behaviors of program participants
-can be expensive
focus groups | explore a topic in depth through group discussion, e.g., about reactions to an experience or suggestion, understanding common complaints, etc.; useful in evaluation and marketing | -quickly and reliably get common impressions -can be efficient way to get much range and depth of information in short time - can convey key information about programs | -can be hard to analyze responses -need good facilitator for safety and closure -difficult to schedule 6-8 people together

REVISION QUESTIONS

1. What are the differences between unstructured and semi-structured interviewing?
2. Could semi-structured interviewing stand in the way of flexibility in qualitative research?
3. What are the differences between life history and oral history interviews?
4. What kinds of consideration need to be borne in mind when preparing an interview guide?
5. What kinds of question might be asked in an interview guide?
6. What kinds of skill does the interviewer need to develop in qualitative interviewing?
7. Why is it important to tape-record and transcribe qualitative interviews?
8. (a) Depending on whether responses are recorded in numbers or words, data can be quantitative or qualitative. Elaborate.

(b) When observation serves a formulated research purpose, most commonly in behavioural sciences, it becomes a scientific tool for data collection. Discuss the statement focusing on the merits and demerits of this data collection method.

9. Distinguish between postal, telephone and personal interview surveys

Interviewing in qualitative research

1. Why has the qualitative interview become such a prominent research method for Business researchers?
2. What dilemmas might be posed for Business researchers using qualitative interviewing?

Qualitative interviewing versus participant observation

1. Outline the relative advantages and disadvantages of direct interviewing and participant observation.
2. Does one method seem more in tune with the preoccupations of qualitative researchers than the other?